UNITED
NATIONS
Economic and So
cml Disk
.
Council
GENERAL
EICN.4 12002 183
31 Jartuazy2002
Original: ENGUSH
COMMISSION ON HUMAN RIGHTS
Fifl eighth session
Item 12(a) of the pmvisional agencI
INFEGRA 1 1ON OF THE HUMANRIGHTS OF WOMEN AND THE GENDER
PERSPECTIVE
VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN
Reportof tie &b1R porteuronvbbweagainstwoinni, its caus aM
conseqirit , Ms. Radh.lka Coo maraswamy, sub milled in act ordair e with
Commissionon Human Rights in1uiion200h/49
Culturalpnctices in the family that are vblent towards women
E
GE.02- 10428 (E)
EJCN.412002t83
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CONTENTS
Pai raç P e
Executhe surthlaly 3
Preface -
I. INTRODUC I ION . I -I D 7
II. CULTURALPRACTICES IN THE FANIILY THAT
VIOLATE WONEN S RIGH 1 11-97 9
A. Female gerdtal mutilaffon 12-20 9
B. HonourIdllfr s 21-37 II
C. The 1 1edgir of gir]s for econcmic and culthral
arTeasement 38- I S
D. Witch huntir 45 - 16
E. Caste 49 -54 I X
F. Maniage 55-64 19
G. Discthuinatoiylaws 65-69 21
H. Son Feference 70-81 22
I. R s icffw Faclices 82-88 24
Practices thattolate men s reFoducthe iights 89-95 26
K. Beauty 96 27
L. Incest 97 28
III. IDEOLOGES THAT PERPETUATE CULTURAL PRACTICES
THATAR VIOLENTTOW DS WONEN 98- 108 28
A. The R gulaffon offemale sexuality 99- 104 28
B. Masculirdtyandtolence 105 - 108 29
IV. STATER SPONSIBIUTY 109 -119 30
V. R CONThIENDA11ONS 120- 132 33
A. At — inteniaffonal I I 120- 122 33
B. At — naffonal I I 123- 132 33
FJCN.4 12002 183
rage 3
Execu*e sumunry
The mth,ersal standards ofhuman iights are oflen derded full oreraffon vthen it comes to
— iights ofwomen. Tr oughoutthe rld . there are Facices inthe familythataretolent
towards womenandhannful to thefrhealth. Your girisare circumcised . live unders re dress
code areg en i nFosffffiffc cderdedForeltuightsandIdlledforthe ikeofhonourinthe
family. Trds rerefldocumentsa nmtherofcuThralFacffces vdiichtolate men s human
iights to bodilyintegñtyand to exFessiorc as well as undennirdr essenffal lues ofecjuahty
anddigrdty. These Faclices andmanyothers cor ffffite afonuofdomesffc tolencebut have
avoidednational andinteniational nffnybecause theyare enas culthral Facticesthat
desem tolerance and resrect.
Culturalrelathismisoflenusedas anexcuse to renrdt irthumane anddi thrdnato w
Facces agath6t meninthe commurdty, desrdte clearFo sior inmanyhumanñghts
fr thjments , includir the Cor ,ention on — Elirninaffon ofAll Fonus ofDiscñniinaffon agair t
Womerç in accordance with vdiichStates re1 es shall take all arFopiate measures to modify
— jcial andculthral rattenis ofconduct ofmenand merç withatewto acrde t —
eliminaffon ofFejudices and customaryand all other Facices wr h are based on the itha of
— fr&eiioiityor the sureiioiityofeither ofthe sexes or on stereot 3 ed roles for men and men
(ait5).
The SrecialRarTefleurFotdesexter Te emrüicaletdence of fl uiioust 3 esof
culthral Factice in the familyfoundindifrerent relts of the rld that are tolent towards
women. All cultures — ceflainFaclices that denywomentheinights anddigrdty The
SrecialRarTefleurrecords etdence of chFacticesinthe hore that States will take immediate
acifonto helperadicate those thatare tolenttowards women.
The SrecialRarTefleurg Tessrecial attenifoninthe rerefito doniinantithologiesand
sthactures vdthin socieffes that reiretuate cultural Facices that are tolent towards womerç
includir the regulaffonoffemale sexualityandma ulfrdtyandtolence. Manyofthe cultural
FacffcesdJscus drnthe rereflarebasedona Jciety'sbeliefthatthefreedomofa marc
esreciallyhersexualiWnifty , shouldbe cunailedandregulated. Manyscholarshaw reintedout
thatthe fearoffemale sexualityandits exFe ionare resrer il le formanyofthe regimes of
lawthatorerate inthe culthral re. These ideologies andsthactures emergedina differentera
butconfinue tobe hannful to men and to dominate public ordrdonandindMduallifest 3 de
thus Fewnffr the eradi affon of Facices that are hannful to women.
The rereflemr iasizes State resrer ibi]ityto eradicate tolence inthe farnilyand
documents — resithte d lopuentssfrategies to dealwithhannfulculthralFacticesdewlored
byStates i ncooreraffonvdthwomen s orgardzatior .
The rereflconcludeswithrecommendaffor fromthe SrecialRarTefleuronwa to
eliminate cultural Facices that are tolent towards women. The SrecialRarTefleur
recornmendsthatwomenfromthe irious commurdffesshouldbe ]jstenedto anda istedto
frarIonu hannful Factices vdthoutdesfro ng — iichculthral tare s t,oftheir cieties wr h
makes up their i ntity. She urges States not to ir ,oke anycusto tradition or religious
cor ideraffon to avoid their obligaffon to eradicate tolence agair 6t men and the girl crdld in
EJCN.412002t83
rage 4
— family. Irnad. — ggest States shouldd loprena]. ci landadirdrdsfrathe sancffor
indomesfic legislaffonto punishtolence inthe familyandFotde redress to womentctims,
nifthetolenceisassociatedvdthaculthralFacffce. The renal 1ncffonshoWdbesfrong
andefrecthe andnotmerelyonparer. FmThenuore, States sh Wdd lopnaffonalplar of
acifonto eradicate tolence in the family, reiticularlytolence relafing to culthral Fact ces,
through health — educaffon Fogranles at the grass-roots l l. Finally, States should adopt
allarFopiate mea jresinthe fleldofeducationto modifythe jcial andculthral rattenis of
conduct that foster culffiral Faclices in — familythat are tolent to rds women.
FJCN.4 12002I83
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Pref&e
The Conmii ion on Human Bights, at its flfly-sixth sessiorç in its re jluffon 2001149,
tooknote witharFeciaffonofthe rereflofthe SrecialRarTefleurontolence aga r 6t merç
its causes and cor ecjuences (EJCN.41200h173 and Add.l-2) and encouraged her in her futhre
work.
In follow-up to her Fetous rerUns ontolence agair t women in — family
(EJCN.4Il995I42, EJCN.4Il996I53, and EICN.4Il999I68), the Fesent rerUn focu s on culbaral
Facces inthe familythatareviolent towards women.
Workb g methods
InanaftempttoFotdeasrematicretewof states 'compliancevdthther
international obligaffor with resrect to eradicatir culthral Fact ces that are tolent to rds
womerç the SrecialRarTefleurrecjuestedGowrnmentsandnon-gownuuentalorgardzaffor to
Fotde herwithwñttenaccountsonhowstate Faclice andrelicyhaw dealtvdth ach
Facces. Inrei*ular, — Srecial RarTefleuraskedforir&onuationonthe follo * :
(a) S ffidie s that have been canied out on these issues;
(13) Anynaffong regional — international irdtiathes that have been taken to cor at
— Foblems;
(c) Legal or other resources a uilthle
(d) Statisffcs in order to e luate the inract oflaws — reicies.
The SrecialRarTefleurwouldliketoexFesshergraffffidetoallStatesand
non-gownmientalorgardzaffor thatFotdedir&onuafforc wrdrhcon ibutedsigrdflcanilyin
— Feraraffonofherrerefl.
The SrecialRarTefleurabJ cor tiffitedare archteam fromexrefls aroundthe rldto
assist her in rerethng to — Cornmi ion on matters relaffr to cultural Facices. The results of
its re arch are inc luded in the r nt rerU n
CoimfryvMts
The SrecialRarTefleurwouldlike to drawthe attentionofthe Cornmi iononHmuan
Bights to — rerUns ofher niissior in 2001 to Siena Leone and Color ia
(EJCN.412002t831Add.2 and3). The SrecialRarTofleurwouldlike to take thisorToflurdtyto
EVNNfl€3
. 6
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FJCN.4 12002 183
rage 7
I. INTRODUCTION
Throughout — world, there are Faclices inthe familythatare tolenttowards women
andhannfultotheirhealth. Younggir]sare cfrcmuci d ,]M under wre dresscode giwnin
Fostuorc derdedForeltuightsandldlledforthe ike ofhonourinthe family. The
Facces andmanyothers cor ffffite afonuofdomesffc tolencebuthaw avoidednational —
inteniational nffnybecause treyare seenas cultural Factces thatdeseive tolerance —
resrect. The un ,ersal standards ofhmuan iights are oflen derded full oreraffonwhen it comes
to the iightsofwomen. Culthralrelath,ism is therefore oflenanexcuse to allowforirthumane
anddi thrdnatoryFacffces agath6t womeninthe conmrnrdty Inthe nextcelthn3 the Foblerns
resedbyculthral relath,ism, — — implicaffor forwomen's iight willbe one ofthe most
inreflant is aes in — field ofinteniaffonal human iights.
2. The Cor ,enffon on — RUmination ofDisciimination agair t Women is extremelyclear.
Athcle 5 states:
tate Fames shall take all arFopiate measures:
(a) To modifythe jcial andculthral rattenls ofconduct ofmenand merç witha
tewto acrde t the eliminaffonofFejudices andcustomaryandall otherFaclices
wr h are based on the itha ofthe ir&eiioiityor the sureiioiityofeither ofthe sexes or
on stereot 3 ed roles for men and men.
3. Athcle 2 ofthe Cor ,entionstates: tate Fanies condenmdi ththnaffonagair twomen
inallits fonns, agree to pursuebyallarFopiate mear andvdthoutdelaya re]icyof
eliminafing dJsciimination agair t women
4. The r claraffononthe Rlirninaffonofviolence agair tWomerc solernrdyFoclaimedby
— General Asser lyinitsre luffon 2IlO4 , a]so states clearly, inai*le 4, tates should
condenmtolence agair twomenandshouldnot ir ,oke anycusto traditionorreligious
cor ideraffon to avoid their obligaffor with re ect to its ebmination ”.
5. Desrdte these inteniaffonalnonns andstandards, — ter ionbet eenunMmilhmuan
iightsandculturalrelatMsm is pla dout inthe r ay]Msofmfflior of menthroughout
— globe. The siffiaffonismade more complexbythe fact that womena]so i ntifyvdththeir
culthre andare ofrendedbythe anogant ga2e ofoutsiders who ciiticize theirnyofdoing
things. Since theirser e ofithnfftyis integrally]inkedto — generalatiftude towards their
commurdty, flieir r ofdigrdtyand ]iresTectoflencomes frombeing members ofthe larger
commurdty. Inrninoiitycommurdties and trard world commurdties that alreadysufrer from
djsciinünafforç t ds ofi ntityreses majorFoblerns for men. Some womenhave told
— SrecialRarTefleurthattheydo notrnindwearir — wilbecau they e — wil as
stvers ,e agair timreiialism. Culthral markers and culthral i ntitythatallowa gioupto
stand urdted agair t the orFession and disciiirdnaffon ofa more re effW etrwic or relifical
majoiityoflen entail res ictior on — iights ofwomen. Nhnyindigenous conmrnrdffes do not
allow men civil iights or Foreflylights — t theythernselws are oflen a threatened
EJCN.412002t83
rageX
commumty,wi 3 n'terable tothe ditatesofthe more re effulgroursinthefrresrecthte
socieffes. Forthisreasorç — is ae ofculthralrelathtmreqthres ameasure ofser ifftty
Women's iights mustbe tdic atedbutwomenshouldwintho iights ma marajerthat allo s
them to be full raifrirants in a commurdtyoftheir choosfr . Without resTec ing their iight to
commurdty, anyattempt to straggle for women's iights might create abacidash that will
marginali2e — women flghffng for equal iights.
6. N flhele. manyofthe Facices enumerated m the next cffon are uncor ionthle
andchallenge thewryconcept of mth,ersal human iights. Nhnyof them ir ,oWe s re rein
andsufrenngandmaybecor idered toitre like”inthefrmanifestaffon. ahers achas
Foreflyandmafltalflghtsare iitherenilyunequal andblatantlychallenge the internaffonal
imrerathes towards equality. The iight to be free from toitre is cor redbymanyscholars to
be ius co er a noin of internaffonal lawthat carajot be derogated from bynaffon States. So
fundamental is — iight to be free from toflure that along vdth — iight to be free from
genocide, it is seen as a noin thatbinds all nation States, vthether or not theyhaw signed any
international cor ,entionordocmuent. Therefore those culthral Facticesthat ir ,oWe wre
rein and suffeth for the woman or the girl crald. those that do notresTect — pl ical
integñtyofthe femalebody, mustreceiw maximum internaffonalscntinyandagitaffon. It is
imrerathe that Facices such as female gerdtal mufflatiorç honour killings, Safforanyother
fonuofculthralFacffce thatbntalizes — femalebodyrecSte international attenfforç —
international l rage shouldbe u dto er ure thatthese Faclices are cuitailedandeirninated
asquicidyasressible.
7. OtherculthralFacffces that amount to djscñnünaffonlikevdse require internaffonal
attention. Women's iight to free and full cor nt to maniage, — iight to equalitywith —
renner throughout a maniage — at its djssolufforç — — iight to irtheñtance — Foreflyare
al j matters that are ofseñousconcern. Athcle 16 ofthe Cor ,enffononthe Himinaffonof
Discñmination agair t Women clearly ts out — frame rk for maniage — farnilyrelaffor ,
basedonthe bipinciples offreedom ofchoice andequahtywithinthe maniage. Ho ewr,
flie pinciples are oflenincordlictvdthmanyreligiousandcustomaiylaws that regulate
maniage — familylife tr oughout — rld
8. Manyofthe laws andFacffces go agath6t cheiishedinternaffonalpinciples. For
example, age ofmaniage thatallowsforcrdldmaniage is acleartolaffonofthe Cor ,entionon
— Bights of the Crdld. wrdrhis — most vddelyrafffledCor tention i nthe world. indicatir
international cor er us on the nom containedin its Fotsior . The refusal to allow men
— iight to free and full cor nt al j derogates from recogrdzed pinciples ofhuman iights
contained in — Internaffonal Cownants ofHuman Bights. Inboth these context there should
be maximum international and national Fes Jre to er ure thatreligious and customaiylaws
cor&onu to unmillyacceptedinternaffonalnonns.
9. Withregardto otherFo sior relafing to djsciiminatiorç difrerentarFoacheshawbeen
suggestedbydifrerent men's groursaroundthe worldto deal vdththe dilemma re dbythe
failure ofinternaffonal standards at — naffonal l l. For some, — notion of ogrete
rea]izaffon ofiights” taken from — Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Bights is seen
as — arFop ate shategy, with mirdmumcore iights to be Fotected. mach as those relaffngto
— iights ofcrdldrerç tre exercise offree choice and — Fotection ofceflain economic iights of
FJCN.4 12002 183
women. The recent arFoachofthe SouthAfñcanl.awConmiissionis one suchattemptat
srellfr outthe mirdmum core iights that shouldbe Fotectedbyanylawrelatir to the family.
AnotherarFoachhasbeento give inditdualsandcouplesthe iight to choose the lawthat
shouldgovernthefrmaniage so that theycanoptout offrathffonalsrerns infavourofalaw
based on the Cor ,ention on tre Eliminaffon ofAll Fonus ofDiscñminaffon agair t Womerç if
theyvdshto do j. Trds g es couples — ñghtto exitsremstrattheyfeelare orFesthve or
djscñnünatoi 3 vdüchshouldbe afundamentalñghtinanymodenisociety The t 3 esof
arFoachshouldbe exploredingreaterdetail inthe irious socieffeswhere this plethoraof
frathffonllawsFe ilsandadelilJerate attemptshouldbe — to er ure that inthe nextfew
decades, religious andcustomarylawsarebroughtinto cc ffonuityvdthinternaffonalstandards.
ID. Inpusrdr forsuchrefonu, — issue ofculthralidenfftyandculthral resrectshoulda]so
be takeninto cor ideraffon. Fortrds reasorç womenl ,ir inthese commurdffesshouldbe the
ones Fotthng leadersrdp and de sir strategy. The lead ±brchar e and frarIonuaffon must
come from them ifun ,ersal standards are to find re Jnance in these ve wd terse socieffes. It is
imreflant that — intenmffonalcommurdty rkcloselyvdth menfromthe religious —
etrwic grours concerned, so that anychar e is seen to be acceptable to the st majoñtyof
womenwho — to live vdthdi thrdnatolyandorFesthve la s.
IL CULTURAL PRACTICESINTHE FAMILVTHAT
VIOLATE wOMEN'SmGHTS
II. There are manyculthralFacffces throughoutthe worldthatare tolenttonrdwomen.
Inthissecifonsome ofthe more dJsthibingtolatior are descübed, inorderto rdgrdightthe
nature of the Foblem.
A. Female gethtalmutllafion
12. Female gerdtal mutilaffon (FGNO, a deeplyrooted traditional Factice, is beli d to have
staned in Eg pt some 2,000 sears ago. It is estimated that more than 135 million gir]s and
women in the world have undergone FGMand2 miflion gfr]s a ar are atnskofmurnaffon.
FGMis FachsedinmanyAfñcancountñes includir Chad, Cote d'Ivoire, Etrdopia, Kenp,
Mali, Nigeña, Siena Leone, the Sudan, Uganda and — Urdted P public ofTara,rda. In the
Middle East FGMis Facff din E pt Oman, — Urdted Arab Emirates and Yemen. It has
ab beenrerefledinAsiancoun iessuchas India, Indonesia, Mala a andSñl.arda
Immigrantsfrom these coun iesredbnuFGMinAusfralia, Canada, Demuark, France, Italy,
— Netherlands, Sweden, — UrdtedKfr domandthe UrdtedStates ofAmeñca. It is isrected
thatFGMis redbnuedamong Jme indigenous groursinCenfralandSouthAmeñca.
13. The methods and t3 es ofmutilaffon differ accordir to each coun and ethrdc group.
But FGMmaybe broadlyclassified into four grours:
Cinmcision . or cuttir ofthe Fepuce or hood ofthe clitoth, knon in Muslim
countñes as sw na (fradiffon). Trds is — mildest fonn, ofFGM — affects ordy
a small Forefi on ofwomen. It is — ordyfonu ofmutilaffon to be conecily
tenuedcircumcisioorçbut there hasbeena tendencyto groupallhindsof
mutilaffor under the misleading tenCfemale circumcision”.
EJCN.412002t83
pige I D
(i i) Excision . meaning the cutfing ofthe clitoiis and all or — ofthe labia minora.
(ffi) Irdlbulaffon . — cuffing ofthe cmos , labianiinoraandatleastthe anteiior
b 'o thirdsandoflenthe wbj]e of the labiamajora. The t sides of the mWaare
then pir ed togetherbysi]k or catgut suthre or with thonis, lea t a small
orerng for the ra age of urine or mer nal blood. These oreratior&' are done
with srecial kr ,es, razorblade sci ors or pieces ofglass and stone. The girl's
legs are thenbound together from rap to anlde and she is kept immobile for up to
Cda torenrdtthefonuaffonof arff ue.
(iv) Intenuediate , meardng — iemo l ofthe citos and some orall ofthe labia
niinora. Sometime slices ofthe labiamajoraare removed. The Factce vanes
accordir to — demands ofthe girl's relafiws.
14. The mainreasor g tenforthe continuationofthisFacffce are custom andfradiffon. In
socieffes where FGM is Factised. a girl is not cor idered an adult or a complete woman until she
goes through the Threraffon”. Some socieffes bei that all rer Jr are henuarthrothffc and the
remo l ofthe clitoiis makes — female a )ure woman”. It is said a]so to test a woman's
abimyto bear rein and defines her futhre roles in life — maniage wrdie Feralilig her for —
thnofcrdlc jinh. FGMis a]so aresult of the ra iarchal re erstncthreswr&hlegihmi2e —
need to control women's lives. It ari s from — stereot dcal rercepifon ofwomen as —
pincirel guardiar ofsexual morait 3 but with unconfrolled sexual urges. FGM reduces a
woman's desire for x, reducesthe chancesofsex outside maniage andthus Fomotestrgrty.
Itisa]so deemedneces i bysocietyto erthance herhuthand'ssexualpleasure. A huthand
mayrejecta manwho — notgone tr oughthe oreration”. Healthreasor are al j put
foiward as jusffficaffor for FGM. Umnufflated women ale cor idered unclean. It is bei d
that FGM erthances fefliity. It is cor idered that — cmos is reisonous and that it could pick
— man or kill a babyat crdlc jinh. In some FGM-Factisir socieffe there is a beiefthat —
clitoiiscouldgrowandbecome like a man's rerds. EventhoughFGMFe-dates Jsla religious
rea Jr are gb/en for the confinuation ofFGM in some jcieties.
15. Despite achjusffficatior , — rea]ityis thatFGMis aFac ice thathasmanynegathte
cor ecjuences. Ovdng to — unk ierdc circumstances inwrdrhitiscaniedout there are many
shofi-tenuandlong-tenu healthhazards coraiectedvdthit. Shofl-tenucomrJicatior include
localandsrematic ir&ectior , abscesses, ulcer dela edhealir , sepffcaeniia, tetanus,
gangrene, severe reinandhaemonhage thatcanleadto shock, damage to — bladderorrectum
and other orgar , or ndeath. Long-tenucomrJicatior include urine retentiorç resultir in
rereatedularyir&ectior ;obsthactionofmer tnalflo leading to frequentreFoducthe fract
fr&ecffor andir&efltht 3 cFolongedandobsthactedlthourleadir to f5sthla fonuationwr h
resultsindiibbing urine; vere raindurir intercour ;extremelyrthr&ulmer tnaffon;and
rs hologic a l Foblemssuchascr ordc arcdetyanddeFe ion. The cyle ofraincontinues
when cutfing and resfftcrdng is canied out to accommodate sexual infimacyand crdlc jinh.
16. Durir the colordalreiiod, attempflere madeto eradicate FGM. Cra sffan
missionaiies inthe Sudafliedto uFoot — Facicebyincluding ame age agair t FGMin
their medial educaffon Fogranles. When trds s not accessfu], — Biiffsh Colonial
FJCN.4 12002 183
r age 11
Gownuuentresofledtolegislationinl9 . Underthela irdIbualionwasndeurda ful.
But t ds did not stop — Faclice; rather it forced the fami]ies to have — procedure done in
secret.
17. FGMwas vddelypuhlicizedinWestenicoun ies againinthe l97OsbyEuroreanand
NoflhAmeñcanfernirdsts. As aresult, indMdualcoun iesbeganto ra legislationthateither
regulated orbarajed FGM Ken condenmed FGMin 1982 and res d fonual legislalion
bar dng it inl99O. Cote d'Ivoire Forni d — Urdted Nalior in 1991 to use its ex]sfing
cñrninal code to Fordbit — Factice and ressed a law Fordbitir it in 1998. S eden s one
ofthe first countñes srecificallyto condemn FGM. Itbarajed health Fofessionals from
reffonuir — oreration in 1982. The Urdted Kingdom ressed — F ordbilion ofFemale
CfrcumcisionAct 1985. The Urdtedstates andCanadacor iderFGMas at e ofhanu that
could qualify meone for Fotection under the Cor ,ention relaling to — Staths ofP fugees. In
1997,the Urdtedstatescñnüna]izedthe Factice ofFGMunderthe IllegalImnii ralionPMonu
— hunügrantP srer il iityAct. Ausfralia. NewZealand. Svdfterland. France andthe
Netherlands are otherWestenicoun iesthathaw made FGMapunishable offence. P cently ,
Burhina Fa j , GambiaandE pttookastandagair tFGM 3 The Central Afiican P public,
Djil outi. Ghana . Guinea. Senega]. Tara,rda — Togo have a]so ressed legislationbar dng FGM
m recent pars.
18. Withinthe UrdtedNalior s tenb it sduñng — UrdtedNatior r cade for
Women 1975-1985, that FGM againbecame an issue for djscussion. As a result the then Cenfre
forHumanPJghtsinGen n ,the l993WorldCor&erenceonHumanPightsinvieraiaandthe
1993 World Health Assemblycondemned FGM as a tolalion ofhuman iights. The Srecial
RarTefleurontolence agath6t merç inherFelinünalyrerelt recogrdzedFGMas afonu of
tolence agair 6t men that requires conceited internalional ard nalional acion for its
eradic a lion.
19. Inmanycoun ies inAfiica, there nowexistsfrong indigenous movements aimedat
stopping the Faclice offemale gerdtalmuhlalion. JnKen there nowexists aceremonycalled
circmucision with rds ” , celebraling a Jung girl's en into manhoodbut vdth woris
ratherthanthroughgerdtal cuttir . InSenega]. religious leaders have gone on llage-to- llage
pilgnmages to stop — Fact cc. It is ordywith enthusiastic surTeit from — local conmiurty
that this pmcice can nffiallybe e]iminated.
20. Other fonus ofgerdtal mutilalion a]so exist that require menlion. Tutsi women in
RwandaandBunndiundergothe Facliceofelongalionofthelabia ,theaimbeir toallowthe
women to exreiience greater sexual plea ire . In other socieies the circumcision of men results
intolation ofwomen's iights. In West Timor, durir — male circumcision ceremony, —
Jung manbeir circumcisedmust thenhaw sex withtrgingfrlscho nforthe occasion.
B. HomurkflTh gs
21. Honourhillir s inPahstan(oiiginallya BalochandPashffiflibalcustom) have recenily
recS,edinternalionalaftenlion. Honourldl]ings are nowrereited notordyinBalocrastan. —
No itWest FrontierPro tce andurTerSind.but inPunjab Fo t e , as well. Theyare al j
rereited in Turkey(eastern — south-eastern Turkeybut a]so in Istanbul — I uir in western
EJCN.412002t83
pige 12
Turke O, Jordarç S ia . E t, Lebanorç Iran . Yemerç Mjrocco andotherMeditenaneanand
Gulfcountñes. Itabj takesplace incoun ies machas Oenuan ç France andthe
Urdted Kingdom within the migrant conmiurdffes. 4
22. Honour hillfr s are canied outbyhusbands, father brothers or uncle somebmes on
beha]fof ibal councils. The hiDing is mairdycanied outbyunder-aged males ofthe familyto
reduce — punisrauent. Theyare thenfreatedas heroes. The acffctisfmthererdorsedbythefr
fellowimuatesinpi jrciftheyare sentthere,whowashthese wungbo &feetandtellthem
thattheyarenow complete”men. Theactisregardedasañteofra age intomanhood.
Irordcaily, it is not unheard of for female relafiws to either c any out the murder or be
accomplice to it.
23. It shouldbe stated here that it is extremelydifficult to collect accurate statisffcal data on
honourldllings inanyg tenconuuurdty As honourhiflings oflenremaina rState famiyafrair,
there are no officialstahsffcs onFactice orftecjuencyandthe realnmuberofsuchldllings is
silygreater than those rerefled. The Washington Post Foreign Sece rerUns that 278
murderswere rerefledinPunjab in 1999, (8 Nhy2000) The Srecial TaskForce forsindhofthe
HmuanPJghts Conurd ionofPahistanrecStedrerefls of196 ca sofhonourIdffingsin 1998
andmorethan300inl999. Eve armorethanl,000 menare hilledinthenameofhonour
inPahthtanalone. Durir — numerofl997, KhaledAl-Qudra. thenAttonie Generalinthe
PalestirianNaffonalAuthoiitystatedthat he susTectedthat 70 rercentofallmurdersinGaza
andthe West Bankwere honourhiflings. Theyare nallyathibutedto nathralcau s. In
Lebanorç 36 honourciimes were rerefledbeb een 1996and 1998, injordan2O honourldllings
in 1998 andinE Mt 52 similarciimes in 1997. Inlraqmore than C00 womenhawbeenhilled
since 1991. The same rerUn stated that beb een 1996 and 1998 in Bangladesh. about 200
women were attacked vdth acidbyhusbands or close relathes, but the nmther ofdeatr is
unimon. Inthe Westthere are honourhillfr s among inmügrantconmiurdffes. Inthe
UrdtedKingdo INTEP1GH1 hasa sTecialFoject that docmuentsforcedmaniage ca sand
— threatofhonourldllings to Biiffshwomenvtho come from immigrant conmiurdifes.
24. In a frecjuenilycited ca , a teenager's tr oat was slit in a ton square in Turkeybecau
alowballadwas dedicatedto herowrthe radio. Otherreasor inclaje bth ingfoodlate,
ar weth bach . undeflahing fothidden famil 2 isits etc. These women's l ,es are cfrcmnsciibed
byfrathffor wrdrher&orce exheme seclusionandsubnii ionto men. Male relaffws itaally
on them and punish contraventior oftheirFopietors}üpvdthtolence.
25. It is not nece aii ly for low, shame, j ealou or social e ure that these ciimes are
committed. Economic and social i ues al j con ibute to the the in honour hillir s. Amnesty
Inteniaffonalclairns that factorssuchasthe Fogree ntalizaffonofsocietydue to cordlict
andwar, increa daccessto heavywearer economic decline andsocialfnjsfrationabj leadto
increasedre jfl to — honour hillir s tem
26. Clear ir one's honourofshame is t 3 picallyhandledbysheddir — bloodofalowd
one; — rer nbeir murderedis t dcallyafemale, — murdereris t3picallyamale relathe,
andthe punisrauentofthe male is t 3 dcallynürdmal. Most sipüflcantl c the murdererisrewred
andresTectedasathae man.
FJCN.4 12002 183
pige 13
27. Honourisamagicword wrhcanbeusedtocloakthemostheinousofciimes. 5 The
concept ofhonour is esTeciallyrewefful because it exists be nd rea Jn andbe nd anal ths.
But what masquerades as lionom” is reallymen's need to confrol women's sexualityand their
freedom. The murders are notbasedonreligiousbeiefsbut, rather, deeplyrooted culthral
ones. Familystatusderends onhonour. Inra iarchalandrathlinealsocieffes maintairdng —
honourofthe familyis awoman 'sresTer ilJimy. Jnthese socieffe the concept of menas
commodities andnot as hmuanbeir s endowedwithdigrdtyandiights equalto tho ofmenis
deeplyembedded. Womenare seen as — Forelt ofmenandtheyhaw tote obedientand
not as l*e andacth,e. Theirasoniscor ideredasanelementwr hwouldresult
inaninalance ofrewerrelaffor witrdnthe rarametersofthe familyurdt.
28. Womenare entoer odythe honourofthementowhomtheyThelong”. As achthey
mustguardtheintgirdtyandchasffty. HonourIdllir sinWestAsiahaw theirroots inthe
cnde Arabic exFession a man's honour liesbeb een — legs ofa woman”. Byconfrollir
women's sexualityandreFoductiorc theybecome — custodiar ofculthralandet}uüc purity.
But male confrol extends not just to a man 's bodyand her sexualbehatour, but a]so to all of
herbehavioui including hermowments andlanguage. Inanyone of these areas, deflanceby
womentraraates into undenrdrdng male honour. The man 'sbodyis cor ideredtobe the
rerethtoiyoffamilyhonom”. Alanningly, — nmtherofhonourldffingsisonthe the asthe
rercepffonofvthatcor ffffites honourandvthatdamages it vdder .
29. The conceptofhonourandits fraraaffonindifrerentsocieffeshasbrought aboutmany
fonns oftolence agair 6t men. It could be direct tolence or indirect tolence . In Sindh.
Paldstanittakes — fonuofKaro-Karildffings. Karo literallymear a Thlackman”anda Kari
mear aThlackwoman”. Theyare reople who hawbroughrdishonom” to theirfami]ies
fluough iious fonns ofbehaviour. There is no other punishment for a Ka r ibut death. They
are more oflen ritualisticallyldlled — hacked to pieces, nallywith — exrdicit or implicit
sanctionofthe conmiurdly Inciffes andtow s, Karo-Karildllings usuallytake placeby
shoofing, mostly i npi te,basedmore onindMdualdecisioor . A man's honouris ordyrafily
restoredbyIdllir the Ka r i. Hemusta]soIdllhieman a llegedlyir tolwd. Butinre a lit casitis
— Ka r iwhoisflrstIdlled theKarohearsoftheIdl]ingandflees. Jnordertosettletheissue,an
agreementcanbemadeifboththeKaro — — manwho honourisdef5ledagree. Butjustice
is not soughtbyflndir out the nth — punisrang the culpit. It is done byrestoiing —
balance tluoughcomrer affng fordamage. The Karo — to raycomrer ationto the familyof
— Kaiiinorderforrds life tobe spired. Not npisingly, — comrer iffoncanbe inthe fonu
ofmoneyor — trar fer ofa woman orboth.
30. Fake honour IW]ings are oflen committed in order to get comrer iffon or conceal other
ciimes. Men murder other men for rea Jr wr h are not corajected with honour i ues and then
Idllawoman of their on farnilyas alleged Kari to camouflage — irdtial murder as an honour
killing. Trds leadsto fmTherreiwrsionofthe honoursrem. Ifawomanrefuses to manya
marchemaydeclareamanofherfamilyasKaroanddemandrer i ncomrer ationfornot
killing ram. He mayeven go as faras killir a woman in rds famiyto lend weight to —
allegaffon. 6 Not smp sir ly, Kath remain djshonoured even afler death. Their deadbodies are
throniniiwrs orbuliedinsTecialrdddenKaligrave whereas Karosare rerefledlyburiedin
— conuuunalgraw rds.
EJCN.412002t83
rage 14
31. Another fonu oftolence that is irdlicted on womenbecau ofhonour comes as a result
or addo baddo maniage as theyare Imon in Pak istan or&rãl as theyare
refenedtoinTurkey. Trafrthffoninwr hthblingsinonefan&yaremaniedtosil lings
in another. As it ir ,oWes — exchange ofumuanied gir]s beb een families for a smaller dow 3
it puts anaddiffonalburdenonwomento abide bytheirfathefsmaniage anangements. Ifone
ofthe couplesmaniedinthiswaydecithsto d ,orce , — othercouple — to serarate as
32. Women who escare honour killir s are oflen in a tenible situafforç ]Mng in cor tant fear
oftheirlives. Theiriightto libeit andmovementis al j restiictediftheyare endangered
women. The Fedicamentofwomeninthe goldencage”is anotherfonuoftolence towards
women. These are menwho arebefr kept injaiinFotecthe custodybecause thefrfamflies
have eithervowedto killthemorhave iedandfailedto Idlithem. Accordingto Jordanianlaw,
a woman carajot be released from pison unless a male relathe comes to sign for her. Since
flie men 'smalerelaffvesrejectedtheminthe flrstplace,theyare lefltolan jishfor arsin
jail. Some men nbei that theydeseive mach punisranent. Some fami]ies sign a pledge
notto hanuthe woman. buttheydllhern flhele
33. Manywomen re jfl to suicide for rea Jr ofhonour. This couldbe voluntaiyor
fr toluntaiysuicide. Theymayconmiit suicide because ofthe social imrdicaffor ofdishonour to
oneselfor to one 's family. Theymaya]so be ir ,ited to conmiit suicide bythe familyand. in
mostcases, theydo conmiitsuicide. Violence isnot ordydli ctedatwomenvtho have
djshonouredthe familyorconmrnrdty Manyhumaniights acth, sts are al j tr eatenedasa
result oftheirefrofls to helptch1ui2ed men.
34. Honourciimes are not corIinedto Mus]imconmrnrdffesordy. Theyoccuriirniious
reitsofthe world. InErazi] . menwho kill theirsTeuse aflerthe wife's allegedadulteiyare able
toobtaàanacquiftalbasedonthetheo thatflUing sjustifiedtodefendtheman 's
iionoui'. Enonuous Fessurebywomen's grours resultedinthe honourdefencebeing removed
fromthebooks orjudges' ir thacffor tojuiies. Ho ever,juiies confinue to acquit menwhom
theyfeelhave killedtheirvdves forreasor ofhonour.
35. In many cieties, wife murder ca s (but not husband murder cases) soon came to be
defended as ciimes ofression. The emphasis in mach cases was placed not on the nature ofthe
ciime itse]1 but on — degree to vdiich — huthand intended to conmiit it. The Fe nt Penal
Code in Bratl expliciflystates that emoffon or ra ton does not exclude ciirninal resrer il iity.
Inthe rest defence law rs d sedthe defence ofhonourasa newexculratolysfrategy. Trds
introduces — a that — wife is — Forelt of the huthandandthathonouris anasTectof
se]idefence. InBrat]. there have beenconfradictoiydecisior withregardto the honour
defence? One ofthebest-Imonca sdealing vdththe conceptofthe honourdefence is —
ca ofJo o Lores. Loresstabbedrds wife andherloverto deathaflercatchng them together
inahotelroom. The rdghestcoultofarTealinBrazioveflumedthe lowerandarTellate couit
decisior acquiffing Lores of the double homicide, statir thathornicide onthe grounds of
defendir one'shonourwaslegihmate. / ntheca sre ied .thejuiyagainacquifted
Lores. Suchhonourdefence rathalorcomplete,are foundinthe PenalCodesofPenj.
Bangladesrc Argenfina. Ecuador, E pt, Guatemala, Iran. Israel, Jordan. S ia. Lebanon. Turkey,
— WestBard andVenezuela. Theathffidethatamanhasaiighttoldllvthenfacedvdth
adulteryhas not dJsarTeared in Texas, in the Urdted State where, in October 1999,
EJCN.4 12002 183
pige 15
JiimuyWathir ssentencedto fourmontr inpisonformurdenng — vdfe andwoundir her
long -time lover in front oftheir lO- ar-old son. Anal ths by me femirjst scholars ofthe
defence of ovocaffon” — shon that manywife murders have come within its ambit.
36. nyrea Jr have beenput for rdbythe reirefrators forthese honourhillir s. They
range fromsurTe d1llici1' relaffor rdrs, to hillir womenforman ng menoftheirchoice or
for exFe ssir a desire to choose a sF0 u1 . These are seen as major acts of defiance in a society
where most maniages are anangedbythe family. Inadditiorç womenare killedfordivorcir
abus ,e huthandsoreveniftheyare rared. astheyare deemedto havebroughtshame ontheir
family. Not smp sir ly, men oflen go unpunished for such cthues”. Mere allegaffon is
enough. The nth ofthe suspicion does not matter: what imracts on — man's honouris the
public rercepifon. Even ifthe relrefratordreams upthe man 's ciime, it is enoughthat he
rercStedittohavetakenplace.
37. In a rare n]iaig, — Ciiminal Comt ofAmman . Jordan. sentenced t men to death for
killing their6O- ar-oldnextofkinto clear e — family's honour. Althoughthe familyof the
cor ,icts drorTedcharges agair tthe — defendants didnotbenefit fromareducifonin
sentence because ofthe heinous nathre ofthe ciime. ( Jordan Time 23 Apil 1996). However,
such ca s are rare. In Pakistan . the ca ofsamia Sar r is a ca in reint. Samia lefi her
thus ,e huthandandaskedforad ,orce. Herfamiythreatenedher. Whileinrddir shebegan
aniflicit relaffor rdpvdtha ung soldier. Herr entsfinally iidthatthey uldnegoffate a
d ,orce — her mother, uncle — a shanger came to — offices ofher law rs. Within minutes
— strangerorenedfire killir Samiair tanily. Desrdtethe nmtherofvdtnes desTdtethe
Fessure broughtbywomen's grours verylittle acifon has been taken agair t the familyor the
reirefrators. An attempt to ouilawhonour kiflings was a]so stalled in the Pakistard Parliament.
The refusal to Fo cute ciimes ofhonour remair one ofthe main concen for evelyjne
interested in issues relafing to tolence agair t women.
C ThepIedgñ ofgir lbreconomk — culiuralappe sement
38. The r dasi srem in India, vthere Jur girls are pledged for life to temples at an
earlyage bytheir rarents, is vddelyFe lent even todayas a Fofe ion that has the sanction of
religion and culture. The gir]s are pledged to a god or a goddess andbecome temple Fostiffites.
Thisisnot a lwa cor redas atolationofhumaniights.'°
39. Young crdldren are irdtiated into — Focess ofbecoming r dasis (sex workers or
handmaidensofgods) evenbefore theyattainpubefly. Economic compu]sior andtraditional
beliefs are — t mainreasor forthe continuationofthisFacffce. Durir famine, drought
andepidemics, the Jung gir]s are maniedofrto thepiest to a ease gods andgoddesses.
Thisbondfothidsthemto manyan Jne el .
C. Aflerafluee- eek-longdediaffonceremony,thegirlisg tentohermatemaluncle,who
is likelyto be — first among manyabu rs. Thereafler she leads a life ofsexual slave .
Frequent Fegnancies, aboflior anddel ,eiies renderthe majoiityofthe D ndasiwomen
pli icallyweakandanaenüc. Havir mulfiple sexualreitners theysufrerfrom leFoduc ive
fract ir&ectior and sexuallvfrar mitted djsea s.
EJCN.412002t83
pige 16
41. The r uhi or the r mhisrem in Nerel is related to — D ndasis teminIndia. In
Nerel, gir]s are offered to deities eitherbytheir on famflies orbyiich rer Jr wbj buya girl
from her rarents in order to be granted cent wishes or heaverdyfavours. She is then called a
DeuhiandengagesinFostiffition. Thereisabeliefthat xualrelatior vdthaDeuhiare
auspicious. Thegirloflenhasno iyinthe frar acffon. AlthoughtheCrdldren'sActinNerel
hasfothiddenfltFacffce ,itstilcontinuesinsomeransofthecoun .
42. Trokosi or slaves ofgods are found in Berà. Nigeiia. Togo ard Ghana. Trokosi is r a n
ofareligioussrem inwr ha feffs}ipiestmediatesbeb eenthe gods andthe reople. Young
girls are eraawd to atone for the sir ofa male relathe. There is a beiefthat gods oflen punish
arer n'ssinbycauthngthedeathsofmer ersofrdsfamilyuntilthesinisrardoned. Untilthe
earlyeighteenth centhi 3 livestock or other gifis were g Ten to — piiests in atonement. But as
girls couldbe used as domesfic help as well as sexual renner piests began taking wung
tgir asrerarationirflad. Agirlisexrectedtoseive a foraceflainreñod derendir
urenthe veiityofthe ciime — — relicyofthe sr ine. The girl's familycanredeemher
afler that reiiod. but — piest demands a high pice. Ifthe piest die the girl becomes —
Forenyofrds ccessor. But irthe girl dies without herfamilyredeemir her, theyare
obligated to replace her with anothertrgin — thus the c le can confinue for generaffor .
While er laved . the womenare forcedto live inirthmuane condiffor . Theyare exrectedto
workinthe fleldsandthe local marketanda]so Fotde sexualseitces to — piests. Theyare
beateninto subrnissioniftheyresist. The GjvenmientofGhanahasdenouncedthe Trokosi
s temanddeemedthe Factice unacceptable. AlthoughalawinGhanawasres din
June 1998 ouila * — Factice, manywomenstifi remaineraaved.
43. Bath in Nerel is — caste Facice offorcir Jung girls to become Fosiftutes. Such a
s temrelreffiates frafficking andslaveryofwomenandgir]s, ninmodemtimes. The girls
are oflen later jld into Fosfiffiffon. The semi-nomadic caste offar esteni Nerel came from
1n andmade their]i t bydancir , sir ir andenteflairdng — iich. Prosiftuffonbecame
— acceptedfonuofincome generationforthe majoiityofBath men. Disciiniinaffonreduces
— BathFosffffites' daughters' ressibfliffesto have otheroccupaffor — oflenpushes them
into Fostiffition. Some women are luredbythe traffickerbyFomises ofajob or a faise
maniage, ortheyare nIddnarTed. Inothercases, — tmffickerdir cilyarFoaches —
rarents andbu — girl from them.
4. Similarl ç other Facices such as flz rita (pledgir ofgir]s for economic gain) or
flripa Ngozi (arTeasement ofthe srüits ofa murdered rer n) tolate women's human iights.
0. Wftchhimth g
45. AnotherculthralFacffce thatisfoundnirdyinAsianandAfiicancommurdties is witch
hunfing orvdtchbuniing. T}üsFacffce is commoninsocieffes vthere there is abeliefin
surersiftion and the etl spirit. Sixteenth and s nteenth centhiyEngland abounded vdth
witches. Epilepffcflt iUne anddeathwere thoughttobecoraiectedvdthwitchcrafl. Women
branded as itches” were toitjred to cor&ess. Theywere beaten — put on — racks — even
bmnta]M. The Facice was bntal and directed agair t women.
FJCN.4 12002 183
pige 17
. The SouthMiicanregior ofNoflheniTrar waalandesreciallyVendarereflincidents
ofwitchbuniingewntoday. Thewomenbrandedaswitchesarestonedorbeatentodeath
before beingbmnt. There is abeliefthat — bodyofthe vdtch” along with her magic
rarar iemaliamustbe completelydestro dto getiidofthe effectofthe dtch”. Wrdle both
men and women are accused ofbeing vdtche stahsffcs sbjw that women are b dce as more
likelytobe so accu d.' 2 Althoughthe WitchcraflSurFesthonActhelrsreople v,k are accu d
ofbeing vdtche manyreople v,k take tolentacffonagair t dtcheC are not Fo cuted
underthe Act. There are manyreasor vthywomenare liklytobebrandedas witches.
Jealousyhas a big role to playin such accusaffor . Trds couldbe becau ofhavir more
Forefly ,havfr healtrdercrdldrenorbeiI beftersIdJledatsomet}ung. Thereisa & in
Venda that all men are — same — all women are witcheC. It isbelieved that women have
sureniatural rewers because ofthefr abilityto bear crdldren. In Jme pral Afiican societies no
causil lird is made beb een xual intercour and — concepifon ofcrdldren. So, a man
falling Fegnantcanordybe explainedbysureniatural occmlence. Like in Jme g sy
commurdties, womenofVenda are cor ideredimpurebecause ofthefrmer thaal c de. This
conceptiscloselylirkedto thebeliefsinvdtchcrafl. Older menare more liklytobe accused
ofbeingvdtchesinVenda. ThefrnabUflytodefendthernseWesandthepl icalarTearanceof
old women oflen lend thernseWes to accusiffor ofbeing vdtches. In Tara,rda. an eshmated 500
women are murdered evely ar and manyothers are haras d aflerbefr accused of
witchcrafl.”InSienaLeonefawomangbi iThtoacr &d iffe fromtthactedlthourin
srdte ofall magical andmediinalattempts, she is labelledawitch. She suffers rejecifonbyher
husband andbysociety. She is forced to cor&ess her sin ofhavir been — cause ofall
rnisfoflunes that have befallen — conmiurdty. Her death isbelieved to be a punisranent for her
I I me 514
47. In India, — West Bengal region rerUns many ach incidents. When reople jffer f , m
il]nesses, or irthere is a lack ofdrirddng nter, or irthere is a death in — fan& ç orcattle die, or
irthere isa cropfailure, orewnirthere isa nathralcalamit 3 the localmagic doctoris
arFoached. His orders are accepted uncjuesffordngly. He usuallydeclares a woman or men
tobe vdtchesor da r&'and aggeststhefrernuliiationtluoughdeafl tobe iidofthe etlspirit
that is causing — Foblerns. The magic doctor is reid a large Jm ofmoneyfor his seces. In
manycases, reople who vdllirtheiit Forelt bythe deathofthe dtch”usuallyraythe magic
doctor. Some reoplebeli that — deathvdllbth re rndsintenusofForelt andsome
otherstnilybeli inthe e lsTüit. Thewomendeclaredtobe vdtchesarethenhilledor
osfraci2edfromthe conmiurdty. Mostofthe deatr are caus dbystthbir , slugging orbuniing.
2. Nerel, too, rereflscases of menbeingbranded aswitches. While different
commurdties have different rea Jr for womenbeir branded — killed as witches, some
femirjsts argue that — enifre concept ofwitches orvdtchcraflisa mard± stationofasexist,
male-dominated society.” According to some scholars, — women vtho are accused ofbeing
witches are in most ca s econornicallyinderendent or vdthout a male reitner. In a male
dominated cietyboth factors are cor idered as retenffal tr eats.
EJCN.412002t83
pige I X
E. Caste
49. In Bangalore, Ind ia when a social worker, wbj belonged to a lowcaste, Fewnted a crald
maniage, — sgang raredbyflw urTer-caste men. They ere accjuittedafleratr ee ear
ialbecause the judge riled that theycould not ressiblyhave rared a lower-caste woman. 6
50. According to aHmuan Bights Watch rerUn” more than 250 million reople worldwide
sufrerbecause ofcaste-ba ddi thrdnaffon. It ca]]s caste a radden areitheid ofsegregaffon”,
modeni-dayslaveiy. Caste isde ent-ba dandheredita . Exploitationandtolencebasedon
binhare foundinmanyraits of the world. The mosttalked-aboutcommurdtyare — Dalits or
so-called untouchables oflndia. The Indian caste s te wr h is rerhars — world's longest
sun*ir social rderarch ç is a feathre ofits jcial life. Corollaiies to t ds caste tem are found
inotherreitsofsouthAsia. suchasNepg Pakistarç Sn Lanka andBangladesh.
SI. Caste-based dMsior oflabour are central to wral ethrdc grours li i manyMiican
countiies. Burhina Fa j, Senegal(Jaam), Nigeiia(Osu), Bunndi. Mali, Caneroorç Nhuritarda.
Guinea, Guinea Bi au. Cote d'Ivoire, Siena Leone, Gambia . Mauriffus and Libeiia are some of
— counties iwr hmarginaUzaffonbecau of jcial rderarchyis ranrant. The Burakuor
Eta of Jaran are another group of reople wbj are subject to exploitation and tolence becau of
theirbiithinto so called5anclean” conmiurdifes. Caste difrerentiationis al j reireffiatedbythe
AsianandAfncandiasTora.
52. Caste-based djsciinünaffon places culturallydefined Units uren — indMdual in tenus
ofmobimyandinteracffon. Lower-caste reople are excludedfrom llagesandconuuurdffes,
wr hforcesthemtobegand avenge inthe streets. TheurTercasteshave mile orno
interacffonvdthlower-caste reople inthefrday-to-dayl zes. The fonns ofdJscthuination w
accordir to each countiyand commurdt ç but are mosilyexclusion from school religious sites
andotherpublicfacthffeOeingforcedto earsrecificcasteathreandtoundeflakesrecific
occuraffor suchasgraw digging, irdtaffonjobs, manual avenging andleather rh . and
being Fewnted from ha t ph ical interacifon with j-called urTer castes.
53. Lower-caste womenoflensufrerdouble andtiiple djsciiminationbecause oftheircaste,
classandgender. Theyface targetedtolence, evenrare anddeath. fromState actors —
reweffulmerthersofdominant casfl usedto irdlictrelifical lessor andcnjshdjs ntvdilün
— conmiurdty, or — women are used as rav to capthre their men folk. These women are
gang rared. forcedinto Fosffffifforc stlirTed. raradedaroundnaked. made to eatexcrement c
nmmderedforno ciime oftheirs. The h ecSyofthe caste s tem is rewaledduring these
ciimes, as 5antouchthiml' does not orerate then. The women a]so face djsciimination through
— ra mientofuneciualwages, orworkinslave-like conditior inbondedlabour. Theya]so
face sexual djsciimination li i the workplace. Young gir]s are manied ofrat an earlyage mairdy
as Fotecifon agair 6t xual a ault from urTer-caste men.
54. There are fonualFotecffor inlaw,butdJsclinünaffonrerthsts. Women jffermore
because oftheirinabi]ityto acce legalFotection. Manywomendo not arFoachthe relice for
fearofdjshonourorthat theywillbe dismis dor ifferfmTherabu .” ManyE m men
demanded that caste-ba dbias, atrocities — rare be recogrdzed as racism at — World
Cor&erence agair t Racism in Ennbarç but were ur&oflunatelynotwiy accessful.
FJCN.4 12002 183
pige 19
F. Marriage
55. Inmany cieties, Jung gfr]s are Feraredformaniage frcm aveiyearlyage. Girisare
schooledfrombiithtobe resTeciful , hardworking andself . icñflcfr ; resrectfulofthefrrarents'
wishes and choice of a groom; hard rnIdng to er ure that the housework will be done and all
other members ofthe farnilyvdllbe looked afler; and se]f.saciiflcing even to — extent of
sacnflcing their on l ,es.
56. Gir]s maybe wedinsome coun iesevenbe±bre reaching pubeit . There is great
commurtyFes Jre for daughters to be manied at an earlyage. This couldbe because trgirdty
is more readilyguaranteedwhenthe girlis Junger. A j, the huthandandrdsfamilycan
control a wung girl more easily. This abj gives a longer reFoducthe reiiod for — g uI to
Foduce more cr&drerç orsTecificallymore Cr&dhoodorearlymaniages are
dJsa&tantageous for wung gir]s for manyreasor . As most girls are slill receMng hooling
whentheyare giveninmaniage, theyhave to cmtailtheireducation. Ifthe maniage is
ratiiloca the biide must go and l ,e in her husband's houi among shangers. She vdll have to
submit to sex withanoldermanandherinmiathre bo ymust endure the dangersofrereated
Fegnanciesandcrd 1 ( Ji 1Th.
57. Forced maniages are a corthion occunence in these socieffes. Thileniless Fessure and
emoffonalblackmailare usedbyrarents andrelafives to force — wung girlinto anunwanted
maniage. Their more exheme fonns can ir ,oWe threaterdng behaviour. abductiorç
impisomuent, r ica1tolence, rare, andin jme ca murder. Forced maniages mustbe
dJsffnguJshedfromanangedmaniages, vdiichorerate successfullywiflünmanyconuuurdffes.
According to — re efl ofthe Working Group on Forced Nhniage, 2 ° a forced maniage is a
maniage conducted without — lid cor nt ofboth rathe where duress is a factor. it is a
tolaffon ofintemaffonallyrecogrdzed human iights standards and carajotbe justified on
religious or culthral grounds. 2 ' While both men and women exreiience forced maniages, it is
ruathy en as an issue oftolence agair t women. Maniages are forced uren wung women
fontousreasor . Sfrengtherdng familylird Fotectir rercStedcultural andreligious
idea]s, Fevenffng ur Jitthle”relatior rdrs, Fotecling farnilyhonourandcontrofiing female
behaviour and sexualityare some ofthe reasor givenbythe Working Group on Forced
Maniage. in some cases, irthe man or her farnilyrefuses a maniage Fore 1]. — man or his
familylddnars — womanandattempts to fonualize — maniage forcefullyc rare her. They
maya]so resofito characteras IssinaffonbysFeadir nimours about herconduct. Acidattacks
are another corthion act oftolence agair t women vthen theyspuni — a&/ances or maniage
Fo esal ofa man. This Factice is cor on li i India — Bangladesh. In Sindh, to keep
daughters inthe ratenialfarnily, theyare sometimesmaniedto ratenial cousir I D to 20 pars
ungerthanthemseWes. The girl jmeffmes — to raS herwould.be husband, if there are no
suchcousir — manhas to undergo — ceremonyofhaq.babh.wa wr hismaniage with
— Qjran. 22 In — same area, another custo calledswar is Factised wherebywomen are
usedas aconmiodityto setile dJsputesbet eeflibes orclar . The receMng ibe canmany
those women or keep them as sex slaves ,23
58. The PenalCodesofCosta Pica, EflücTda. I.ebanorç Penandunguaystate that i ra
womanisraredandthe reirefratoragreesto mariythetchm, he willbe rardoned. 24 Forcir
— victimofrare to manythe reirefratoris commoninmanysocieffes. The rea Jn ofieng ten
EJCN.412002t83
pige 20
is thatit vdllFotect — honourofthe girl. aice she is rared. — becomes umuaniageable - an
unflürdSjle conthtioninmany cieffes. Asa result rare-maniageCare oflenenteredinto.
59. The actual sale ofgirls or men into maniage is not a common plienomenonbut it shll
occurs. The notoriouCmail-orderbrideThusine. where womenfromd lopir countriesare
soUth WestenCmenisjustone example. Manywomensee this as aticketto the d lored
Westbutthe Foblem vdthsuchmaniagesisthe rdghrate ofabandomuent. The majorityof
womenir oWedatFesent are Fiipinos butthere isa g vdngtrade in menfrom E stem
Eurore, Colordjiaands ralSouthAsiancoun ies. 25 The Faclice ofNathainlndia forces
womento manys raltimesforthe familyto getmoneyorForefly.
60. Dov ies are gifts from the bride or her familyto the husband and — family. In theory
the gifls are g Ten in a spirit ofgenerosity, but t ds is often undenuinedbyeconornic
cor ideraffor . Manyso-calleddov ydeaths occurvthendov ies are cor ideredir iThcientby
— groomorrdsfamily. Wrdle dov iesaremairdyg tenintheAsianregiorcbride ealthis
charactethfic ofSub-Saharan Africa and ir ,oWes the groom or — familygi t gifis to —
bride or her family. The abuse ofsuch w es can er ue , as theyare heated as commodiffes.
61. In many cieties, women are subject to trgirdtytests ontheir maniage rdght. Trds
customalyFacce degrades menandisatolaffonoftheiiights. Girls and menaie
exrected to Feselve both their ph icahtgirdtyand their reputaffon for chasffty. In Turke ç
womenare forcedto undergotrg dtyexaminatior bytheirfamiliesand nthe State for
vanous re asor . 26
62. Durir maniage, awife maybe treatedlike aslaw. She is underthe authoiityofthe
husbandandshe hasto reffonuher elyduffeC adecjuatelyifshe does notwant tobe
threatened ph icallyand emoffonally. In — majoiityofcoun ies ciiirdnal law canbe ir ,oked
for assault in maniage but not for rare. Most menbeliew that theyhave a iight to x vthen r
theylike. While countries like Austraiia, NewZealandandthe UrdtedKingdomhaw changed
— law with regardto marital rare to allowahusband to be Fosecuted for raping — vdfe, this is
notthe noin. As mostofthe menare notallowedoutofthe house to eanianinderendent
income, theycaratotleave theirmaniages. Inteniaffonalstandardsmake clearthat reftiers
should have equal iights and resTer ilJimies durir maniage. Ho ewr, in Jrarç — husband is
— headofthe householdaccorcling to ci llaw;a sirnilarsiffiationexSsinBurldnaFaso, —
DornirdcanP public, Gaborç Indonesia. Nigeria. Penandthe Prdlippines. InBunndi awoman
is deemedir&eliorandherFesffge derendsonthe amountofworkshe cando andthe numberof
craldren she canbear.
63. S ral other fonns ofthreat ortolence are used to er ure that women stayobedient
withinamaniage, forexample the threatofthe husbandtaldng anothervdfe orofd ,orce. In
some couithies rel amyis either legal or condoned. In others, bigamous maniages are
conducted and vthen — tnth comes out — man faces — nath ofthe societyewn vthen
she was unaware ofthe first maniage. Mut 1 (temreraiymaniages) are conducted in Iran.
where a man is enfitled to take as manytemreraiyvdws as he can afford. In Jme socieffes the
life ofadivorced or abandoned wife canbe even more rair&ul and humi]iaffng than the life she
ledvthenshe smanied. The sffgmaattachedto ad torcedwomankeers manywomenin
FJCN.4 12002 183
pige2l
hosmemaniages. Somethues nthedeathofherhusbanddoesnotendthetolence. A
widowedwoman's life derendsonhereconomic siffiationandthe attitudesofherfamily,
relafives — society. In Jordan . thvo e is collocjuiallyknon as t ovdng awal'; in Nigeria a
d ,orced or widowed woman is refened to as ThazawarC, vdiich mear a thing that has been
user.
64. In some culthres in Mica, a tdowis exrected conhnue conce crdldren for her
dead huthand through sexual relaffor with — heii usuallya male relathe such as a
brother-in-law. Today, oldcustorns mach as I virat Fotde score andjusffflcation for male
relafives to abuse the widow mentally, ricallyand sexuallyin the name of tradition. Many
widows and their daughters are seen as easytarget for menbecau theyhave no male Fotector
andare seen as 5jsed”women. N ntal andricaltolence is irdlictedbyvaiious fradiffor
for widow including ]imited and degradir dress codes, hanuful and cnel diet codes, sha t
ofhair and limited reiticiraffon in social nts. In — most exheme ofcases, accordir to the
custom ofsah nowouila edinIndia, thebereavedvddowisbunit onherhusband's funeral
fl e.
G. D crimbntory laws
65. Durir — Beijir Cor&erence rathciratir States made veral conmiithients to rereal
dJscrinünatoiyla s agair twomen. 2 ' However,eventhoughinraragrar i232 (d) ofthe
PlatfonuforAcfforç — rathciratir Gownmients agreedto revoke anyremairdng la s that
djsciinünate on the basis ofsex and lemove genderbias in — admirdstraffon ofjusffce”, s ral
la s continue to have di iiirdnatoryefrectsonwomenfluoughoutthe rld. 2 B
66. States have i 3 di la s onthe marital staths ofawoman. These regulatior stipulate
— legal age ofmani e, — legalityofrelwamy, 3 ° condiffor for remaniage 11 and a]so
unequald torce iight? that have dJsciinunatoiyefrects onwomen. These rr sior usually
exist alongside cor fftuffonal guarantees ofecjualityand non-di thrdnaffon.
67. ManydJscrinünatoiyla s impir e urenthe rersonal staths ofwomen. Womencunenily
do not have — iight to vote in Kuwait. Attempts to gain iffrage have been rejectedbythe
Naffonal As r lyand women have recenilyirdtiated a comt retiffon for v ew ofthe cunent
statusofthe law. Some counties ordydefine cihzer rdpas ressir throughthe male lineage.
Counties vdth la s limitir cihzer rdpintrds yinclude Bangladesrc Kenp, Monaco —
Venezuela. Untilcjuite recently, — UrdtedStates hada thn&arla declareduncor ffffiffonal
bythe SuFeme Comt inSepter er 1999.
68. Though iious thscthuinatoiystaffitoiyandcor ffffiffonalregulatior — economic
statusofwomenremair unequal. Inmanycoun ies,irtheiitance laws remainliithedto gender.
Among — counties requiringmale ]ineage forthe irheiitance ofForelt oramale guardian
forthe exercise ofjointcustodyofForelt are — Bahama Chile, most ofthe coun iesof
sub- iharanAfiicaand Neralas well as manyindigenous grours and ibal grours around the
world. In Uganda, women make up over 80 Fr cent ofthe agricultural labour force, but ow
to a cor inaffon ofcustomaiylaw, Islamic law — statutoiylaw ordy7 per cent ofwomen on
land ? 3
EJCN.412002t83
pige 22
69. Inthe area offardlyrelatior ,manyla s aroundthe world . esreciallyreligio —
customaiyla s, djscñnünate agair twomen. Under jme la s , cor ent to — maniage isg en
bya male guardian — notbythe girl. N n are allowed to Factise rel amybut women are
notallowedto Factise rel ndiy Womenare derdedmaintenance ond ,orce oriitheñtance on
— deathofthe husbandorfather. Theycanbe thvo edunilaterallybytheirhuthandsandlose
custodyoftheir crdldren afler a ceflain age. Their admirdstraffon ofForeflymayaE require
— huthand's cor nt. In some counties so-called Ulegitimate crdldren are derded anyñghts
underthe lawandcouplesare derdedthe ñghtto adoptthem. Inmanycountñes girl crdldrenare
maniedbefore theyreach — age of IX. All these la s tolate — Cor ,enffon on the
Himinaffon ofall Fonus ofDiscñniinaffon agair t Women.
H. Srnpreference
70. SonFeference , the Feference ofrarentsformale crdldrerç oflenmardfests itselfin
neglect, derStaffonordi thrdnatoiytreatmentofgir]s to — de iment oftheirpl ical —
mental health? 4 It is generallyrecogrdzed to exist li i most Miican — Asian counties, but
iries li i inter ityand exFession from one count lyto another.
71. Inmanyregior ofthe rl d . enfrenchedra iarchal srerns reiretuate bias —
djscñnünaffon agair t females from — hine theyare conceiwd — ewnbefore theyare born.
But economic cor ideraffor such as the fradiffonal role ofmen vdth regard to agñcultme — as
Foreflyoflersunderlie this t e ofdJscñminationagair twomen. Trds is eninFacffces
suchasFenatal n lecffolbfer aleir&anffci&andgenderdifrerencesinnthifforchealthand
educaffon. While — pllenomenonof JnFeference ]s atrathtional Factce that djscñminates
agair t women in most socieffes, ± male foeticide or ir&anffcide are more Fe lent in Asian than
inAfñcansocieffe where JnFeferenceisexFes dmosilytluoughhealtrcnthitionaland
educaffonal differences beb een — sexes? 5
72. Manyfradiffonal Facices are followed in order to avoid — binh ofa daughter.
P ligious iitua]s suchas Fa r, fasffng, andpilgñmagesarebeli dto ir ,oke agodto
irIluence a crald's x. Tradiffonal medi ines and ceremordal ñtes are a]so conmiordyused to
guarantee — sex ofa crald. But now, vdthmoderntecraiologysuchas amrdocentesis or
sonograr , it is easierto detenidne — x ofthe miborncrdld. Trds a&,ancementofscience
— tecraiologyis exploited to lect — x ofthe crdld tr ough abothng the unwanted crald
irfladofmerelymordtoñng — healthofthe foeths. Mjst ofierç it is — ± male foetusthatis
cor ithredunwanted. UNrEF — Fotdedthe follo * statisffcs:
A studyoflO,000 abothor ±bllowir gendertestsbyamrdocentesis inBor ay, India
rewaled that 9,999 ofthe foethses ere female;
A recentofficial nveyinCrdna rewaledthat 12 rercent ofall female foethses ere
abofledorotherth unaccountedfor, mairdythe re iltofultrasound reerdng
throughout — coun to detenuine the x ofmiborncrdldren;
In one sulveyin Bar ladesrç 96 Fr cent ofwomen said that theywanted their next crdld
to be a boy. Ordy3 Fr cent wanted a girl? 6
FJCN.4 12002 183
pige 23
73. Inlndia , vthere there is ashong societalFeference for jr , many x ldent]flcafion
clirics have staned up. Sex iWnifficationbefore binhwas made unlawml manflears ago but is
commordyFacff d throughout India. It is argued that a girl will be a financialburden that vdll
ordyincrea as — gro s. A modemsa dng inindia. etter5OO nrees nowthan5,000 nrees
later, com rares — cost of x selecth,e tecratologyandthe futhre dov y.
74. Inmanycultures, — re mJsiontowards — binhofa daughteris J shong thatfemale
ir&anffcide is accepted as a nece aiye l. A babygirl maybe derSted offood and nter in the
horethatshewilldie orshe mayevenbeldlled. Suchmurdersare oflenarenofañffial.
Scaldir chickenbrothreureddonane *ontgirl'str oatisthought to increase the chance
that — mother's next child will be a son. In China. manyfarnilies Fefer that — one crdld
theyareallowedundertheSateone-crdldrelicyshouldbe a jrçforvaiiousrea jr . Many
babygir]s are put in d & rooms and lefi to — vdthout food or nter. This vd]ful neglect of
girls is corthion tr oughout their lives. Given — nmther ofmen in India and China at Fesent
there shouldtodaybe 30 rnifiionmore womeninlndia and38 rnifiionmore womeninChina
than there are?B
75. Ceremordesandita]s, as onthe occasionofthe flrsthaircut innoflhlndjaorthe
dJsresalofthe mthilicalcordceremonyinEg ptalmostaE accomranythe binhofa male
child. The Facticesare rarelyfollo edforthebiflhofa girlchild. Theirbiitnot ordygo
uncelebrated but their]Msare oflenunden lued. InTai rnç daughtersare commordyrefened
tobyerdthets machas goods onvdiichone lo C and aterspilledonthe grouncr. InArabic ,
— tenu Abu-bana4 meardng — father ofdaughters, is an ir jlt. In Uganda. when a girl is
boni. — familywill announce it as the binh ofa Fosiftute as she willbe brought up to be
manied in exchange for came.” Parents — familymer ers in ceflain areas ofPaldstan use the
rthrase y udie” as atenuofendeanuentfortheirdaughters. Suchterrns are neveru d
with reference to a boy n as a joke. 4 ° These are Jme ofthe couniless wa women leant
howmiletheyare lued.
76. Even i ra girl child sun*es, she sm l has to face other djsciinünaffon. One such Faclice
is — dJscrerancyinnutliffonandhealthbeb eengifls andbo . UNICEF esfimates that more
than I rnillionfemalebabies — each earfrom mtutiiffonandabuse who wouldhave ]Mdif
they erebo . 4 ' Manymothers stopbreasffeedir a gfrlcrdldearlyinordertotiyandget
Fegnantwlthamale. / nagfrlcr&dis eanedearlierthanrecommended she vdllnot
recS,e — nutiients necessaiyfor her growth. The babyis a]so at great iisk ofir&ectionbecause
ofma]nthiffonandthe ressil le impurityofwaterandfoods u dinplace ofbreastrni]k. If
there are shoitages ofmoneyandfood. sor have pioiityfreathtentoverthe daughters.
Daughtersare frainedto ttraffenilywrdle theirfatherandbrothers flrdshtheirmeg andeat
whatisremairdng. Ceitainfoodrest±tior a]so denygir]s — necessaiyttamir andcaloiies.
It is estimated that iron deflciencyafrectsbeb een 75 r cent and 96 r cent ofgir]s over IS in
Afiica and up to 70 r cent ofgir]s bet een 6 and 14 sears ofage in India. 42 Manygir]s remain
ma]nourished as teenagers and this hasa cncialefrect on their health as anadult. Theyab
have unequal access to medical care.
77. Tradiffonally, females are nottakento hosrdtalor to othermediealFotders unifltheir
il]nessreachesaciiffcalstage. Theyaremoreoflenfreatedathome ortakentoatraditional
healer. Morebo are immurJzedandtieatedbyhosrdta]s thangfrlsandthatgfr]sbet eenthe
EJCN.412002t83
rage 24
agesoft andfrte earshaverdgherdeathratesthanbo inmanydevelordngcoun ies. A
boyis more carefullytakencare ofto er ure thathe willgrowinto a strongmanto Fotde for
— family.
78. Discñminationineducationis anothermardfestationofsonFeference. Educafionincurs
a cost. Parents who are unable to rayfor — educaffon ofall their children vdll most oflen
Fefertosendtheirsor to hoolorun Terthty Gir]sare keptathome tolookaflerthehouseor
other Junger sil lings. It is thought thatbo need abetter education to look afler their families
whentheygrowup. Insocieffes vthere girlsare maniedofrata wung age, theyare withdran
from school even pimaiyschool. Those girls who are er olled in hool face djsciinünaffon
there whenteachers rayless attentionto them. Theya]so maynothave enoughffme to
concenfrate on their sffidies becau oftheir resrer il iiffes vthen theycome home. Gir]s are not
exrectedto do well andthatme age is ntclearlyto Jur girls. It is eshinatedthat more than
b 'o thirdsofifiiterate reople tr oughout — worldare women.
79. SonFeference not ordyhas dJsciinünatoiyandtolent results forgirlsbut a]so fortheir
mothers. A woman is more lik lyto be made Fegnant more h i nes vthen she Foduces a g uI
child, thus SLing heronhealthas ellasthatofhermiborncrdld. She willa]sobe forcedto
keep on Foducir until a male child is born.
80. There are tous culthral, religious andeconomic reasor forthe abow-menfioned
Facces. In manysociefies, male children canyon the fainilylineage. The biflh ofa son is
eagerlya ttedin order to Feselve the fainilyname. There are ir tances where the husband
will manya condvdfe to er ure — blithofa Jn. Among manycommurdties inAsiaand
Afiica, menreffonnmostreligiousceremordes andsor reffonnbuñaliites forrarents.
Parentswithno male childrendo not exrectto have arFopiate buiia* wr&h cme theirreace
li i the next rld. In agiiculthral sociefies, — need for a strong labour ±brce is a factor vdiich
reireffiates JnFeference. The derStedeconomic staths of menandthe lowesteem
attached to women's economic contiibufion result in — Feference for sor .
X l. This is illushated in a sa & common li i sociefies vthere son Feference is Fe lent:
To have a n is good economics and good reific whereas bth ing up a girl is like nteth
— neigMour's garden”.
I. Resfric*eprac&es
82. Inmanycultures, menare Fewntedfromdoing ceflainthings merelybecause they
are men. Vaiious culthral Factices restiict men 's mowmentbecause oftheir gender.
83. Footbinding s an ancient custom li i China, lastir from the tenth centhiyunfil —
b entieth centmy. This fradifion ir ,oWed fight, reinful bindir ofthe feet and toes vdth
bandages to keep — feet as small as tr ee inches. It was irdfiallyFacfi dbythe iicrç but it
cluicidysFead to reor families too. It was a status s thol to have daughters with finyfeet and
fliey ere cor redmore jitable formaniage as iotusfeeI'cordined gir]s to the houi —
thus er uredtheirtrgirdty. Itwas reitlyre eredbyasexualfetish. This Foce tooks ral
rthr&ul arsandoflencausedir&ecfiorc gangrene andevendeath. Mjst menbecaine totally
derendentonmale relafiws, thusreir&orcing their jbordinate resifioninlife. Nhnylaws ere
FJCN.4 12002 183
pige 25
ressed to e]iminate this Facice but unrn — role ofwomen in cietychanged. — Faclice
remained. Theefroflsofthe GjwnuuentofCrdnasince — l9 Cs ,vdthshongpunisrauentsfor
those who engaged in foot bindir has re jlted in — eradicaflon ofthe Faclice.
84. Ceflain socieies heat women as second-clai cihzer byplacfr condiflor on treir iight
ofmowment. This is done tr ougharecjuirementofobedience to — huthandorbyFotding
male guardiar . The YemenPersonal Staths ActNo. 20 ofl992 notordystatesthatthe wife
should obeythe husband but a]so that — must move inwithrdmto the conjugal home, renuit
rdmtohave licitintercour vdthherandnotleavethehome vdthoutrdsren Jssion. 43 In
Saudi Arabia women are not allowed to di ,ever les orto havelwithoutamale comrardon.
Athcle 32 ofthe 1992 Code ofMariiage and Guardiar rdp ofMali. states that — wife must
obeyhersTeuse. Algeiia Moroccoandthe SudanhavesliuilarlegalFo sior . La sreqrnm
female obedience orsubseence are oflen keyto making women derendent on men and lied to
abuswe relalior rdrs.
85. Insome culthre mer thaationis cor ideredarelluling nt. Womenare i jlatedin
outhouses at this lime of mer nal c de and not allo edto come into — main house ormir le
withreople. Theyare a]sores ictedfromealingceflainkindsoffood. Theyarecor idered
uncleanto reffonureligiousorotherFaclices durir mer tnalionandare notallowedinpublic
places.
86. In manycoun ies it is cor idered immoral and indecent for women to arTear in public
without aheadcoveiing orvdthouta FescthJeddress. 44 JnMorocco, menwearhe grey
vei]sandlightwrdte gagsovertheirmoutr whentheyleavethe house. Inthe Sudarçthe
fundamenta]istmflitaiyregime ado*dpiblic laws that require mento wearloose long
dresses andcovertheirheads orbe subjectedto renames that range from — amputalionoftheir
hands andfeetto stordng to death. The Talibanregime, whenit sgovenüng AfgharJstarc
liure d ht aab and — burqua or — modest dress code in its s ictest fonu — anytolalior
ofthisregulationwere hars}ilyrepinianded. Inlrarç menare comrelledto wearthe chador
when theygo out.
87. Be they the imresition of the chador 45 or of purdah. or of the burqua, 46 these dre codes
or modestycodes are rTesedlyFesclibed j as to desexua]ize women and thus Fotect them
fromtolence. Theyare a]so to er Jre thatwomen's chaslityis Feselved J thattheydo not
arouse the desire ofmen other than their huthands. However, in actual fact theyres ict
women's movement andtheiriight to exFession. Healthhaz,rds coraiectedto the ganuents
are a]so common. Such dresses maycause asthma . rdghblood Fes Jre, hearing or sight
Foblems, sldnrashes, hü loss anda generaldec]ine inmental condition. Menofcourse rarely
have dresscodes anddress requirementsexcept underthe Talil anregime.
88. For Jme womerç however, these dress codes can al j be liberaling, derendir on —
context — on — relilical siffiation. For example, the veil was ajewefful s thol agair 6t
Westeni” imreiialismdurir the oveflr owofthe Shahinlran. 4 Nhny menchoose to
cor&onu to dress codes as amarkoftheirithnlity. The recent expu]sionofthe three Muslim
schoolgir]s from a school in France, and an Eg plian girl from a French school in Alexandria for
wearing — headscaifderdedthe girlstheiriightto theirculthre —— iight to educalion. As
EJCN.412002t83
pige 26
long asthe choice ofdre is made withthe wearer'sfullcor ent, — iights ofindMdua]s are
not comFonü d. However, ifdress codes are forced on men and ifpunisrauent is meted out
fornotweath ve cmthersome attire, theirñghts ofchoice andexFe ionare clearlyderded.
J. Prac&esthatviolatewomen's rc rodur*er hts
89. In — rest — Foteclion ofwomen's reFoducive iights has not been a ragh pioñty
among nalionalorintenialionalbodies. Histoñcally, — maindutyofwomenwas tobearmen's
crdldrerç Feferthly Jr . The healthissues coraiectedwiththis Foce wentumioticed. The
cor equences ofearly, frequent and excess e crdfteathig were explainedbyfate, destinyand
dMne will ratherthanasthe resWtsofo FeTe culturaland jcial Facticesandgovenmlental
neglect ofreFoducthe health itces. 4 As explainedbyMarder, The cau1 ofmatenial death
oflen has Jme ofits roots in a woman's life before — Fegnancy. It maylie in ]r&ancy, or even
before herbiiflç vthendeflciercies ofcalcimrçttaminD orironbegin. Continuedtr oughout
craldhoodandadolescence, these faults mayre iltina confractedreMsand ntuallyindeath
fromobsthactedlabourandoflenincr ordc iron-deflciencyanaeniia fromhaemonhage. The
ham ofnegathte factors goes on tr oughout — man 's life: — sTecial Sk ofadolescent
Fegnancythe matenlaldepleionfromFegnancytoo clo lysraced;the burder ofhea
ricallabourmnthe reFoducthe reiiod;the rene edrdghSkofcrdlc eath afler35 —
wor afler C;the compounding Skofgrandmullirarity, andnirwingtr oughall this —
ghasilydangers ofillegal aboflionto wr&hsheerdesrerationmaydi te her. Allthese are lir s
tha chain from whch ordythe grave or menorause offer hore ofescare .
90. There are tous culthral Facticesurdque to different — of the rldwrdchare
hanuful for women and their reFoducthe sems. Atolalion of men's reFoducthe iights
is tolence agair 6t men. Lack ofcontrol over their sexual — reFoducive lives — reor
qualityreFoducive healthcare resWtmnthetolalionof men's hmuaniights.
91. A man's abiityto bear crdldren is linked to — conlinuityoffarnilies, clar and social
grours. This has been — object ofregulalionbyfairdlie religious ir tiffitior and
govenmiental authoiilies. The abi]ityto bear children maybe a&tantageous becau it gives a
woman emolional satisfactiorç but it can a]so be an orFesthorc abanier or even an obstacle.
Therefore,herconholoverherfethlityisciilical. hisome cielieswomenhavetitaallyno
saymnthe mafterofrestrerdng crdlc jeath orhaving acraldmmmediatelyaflermaniage. There
is a great deal ofFe ure to Foduce a child vdthin a reasonable lime, but to become Fegnant
too soon is al j sconiedbythe elders. While women are used as child Foducers, their
reFoducth(e c de is not given much attenlion.
92. In Nigeiia. a quafler ofall women are maniedbythe age of 14, one ha]fbythe age of 16
and tr ee quaflers bythe age of IX. In Bot ana, 28 rer cent ofwomen who have rbeen
Fegnant were Fegnantbefore reaching the age of IX. In Jamaica . one third ofallbiiths are to
adolescent mother while li i Pen. Colorthia and H SaWador 13 or 14 rer cent of ung men
agedbeb een I5and 19 are alreadymothers. 5 ° As are jltofthe teenage Fegnancies, they
tend to suffentous medical comrJicatior . It is eslimated that without obste ic care, women
whog tebiflhbefore theyreachtheage oflXare threetmmesasliklytodie mncrdltnhasare
FJCN.4 12002 183
pige 27
women aged 20-29th similar circumstances. 5 ' Whena man manies at a Jur age, — is
likelyto have more crdldrerç as herreFoducthe peiiod is longer. This will result in a&Terse
effects on her healtrç mach as malnthition.
93. Insome Fans ofthe world . womenu1 hethal andotheragentsonthe ginato cause
di 3 mess, heat andffghthess. Theybeliew thatmenFeferd1y x ”inwrdrh menfeellike
tgir andbecau theytrdnk that female cretior are unclean. These ibstances can cause
frIlaimuaffon and erosion ofthe ginal mucosa. 52 In some Afiican countiies and Indian states it
is believed that havir sex with at in can cure men vtho suffer from a sexuallyfrar mitted
dJsea . 53 Ceflaindietaiyres ictior durir Fegnancycan hanuboth the woman and the child.
In Siena Leone, — Fegnant women is a&,ised to refrain from eafing eggs and cracken as they
are bei d to cause frequent stools inbabie and a]so fish as it vdll re ilt in mucus inbabies.
Suchres icffor Fewntthe Fegnant womanfrom gettir essenffalFoteir andwtam]rs. In
some conmiurdifes in Guatemala, — mother is givenbetter care ifshe g es binh to ababy
boy. 54 CeflainactMties are a]so deemedinauspicious. Standir at — dooiwaywrdle Fegnant
isbeli dtocau obstnctedlabourandputhnghandsontheheadtocausediflicultor
Folongedlabour. 5 5
94. Inmanycoun ies there are no trainedbinhattendants. The fradiffonalbiithaftendants
are unfrainedandba theirFacticesonhious culthralbelief like e lspirits andsureniatural
Fewers. ValiousFacticesdunngcrdlddeliwwcau hanutothemothers. Pressingthe
abdomento force — babyout pulling — bthyoutbyfc ce, gi t awiyhotbathto —
del teiing r otheror nir thng ceflainheths into — woman's ginato accelente thebiith
andi Jlaffngmotherswhohavejustg enbiflharesomeoftheseFacffces. IntheSoutheni
HigrdandFo t e ofPapuaNewGuinea. womenare exrectedto giwbiithunaftended. It is
believed that a woman's blood is a Jurce ofcontairdnafforç leadir to ifiness and death. 56
95. The fundamentaldigrdtyofwomenashumanbeings requires that theyshouldnotsimply
be regardedascrdldbearers andrearersbutas complete indMdua]s vtho are entiiledto rile their
on]Ms. The inabi]ityto confroltheveryfuncffor thatdifferenffate menbiologicallyfrom
men is in ith ]fatolation ofhuman iights.
K Beauty
96. Inmany cieties, — desire forbeau hasoflenaffected menind ,erse war. Inthe
Westeni” rldinthe b ent flrst centmythebeautymyththatatrdnfemale ph ique is —
ordyacceptedshare is imrosedonwomenbythe mediatamagazines, a&,ethsir and
teletsion. This me age is ntto Jung imFessionable girlswho s ,eto attainthis reffect
image without rea]izir that this image is oflen ur ealistic. A&,eflisements confinue to refiray
women in their fradiffonal roles or asbodies to sell a Foduct. This culthre ofimFacffcal ideals
results in manyFac ices that cau1 a great deal ofabuse to — female body. Cosmetic surgery
of iyreitofthe femalebodyhas ledto healthFoblerns andcomrdicaffor formanywomen.
Inaddifforç eaff n gdi rders due to mthealthyfoodhabits — al j raisedagreatdealofconcern
inthe Westernworld. Gir]s andwomenare dJsForeflionatelyaffectedbyeaffng djsorders —
culthral demands for trarthess in — Western rld. It is esfimated that ordy5 to I D r cent of
reople with eafing djsorders are male. 57
EJCN.412002t83
pige 28
L. I ' est
97. Inmanyreits ofthe rld . incestis culthrallytolerated. Nhnycountñes do notlist
incestas acñme inthefrrenalcode. The fonu incest takes ñes fromforcedmasbnbatiorç to
sexuali2edbeatfr s, toucrang ofgerdta]s, fellatio, cur dlingus andrare. Fathe.brother
ste athers, uncles, cousir and even grandfathers mosilyengage in these Faclices. Women
commit incest more rarely, but — number maybe larger than realized. There are ca s of
rarents or gua daar ir nfing neigM ours to commit incest or ir tances vthere the guarthan knows
ofthe ciimes but thnis ablind e . Incest is Facff dbyceflain cults, like — Hindu Sakif
sect in India, in — beiefthat it is a ragher grade ofsexual intercourse and an a&,anced step
towards religion. In an endogamous Indian group calledBaiga, incestuous maniage is
Fachsed.SB Thetchmsare mostlyfemales. Manyofthe sun*orsofincesffious Facces
sufrerfrom nous hologicalandpl ical thsorders. 5 One of the main Foblemsisthe
enonuousemoffonalthfficultyinrerethng these crimes, esreciallyinthe face of disbelief and
lack ofpunisrauent for — relretrator. 6 °
IlL IDEOLOGIESTHATPERPETUATE CULTURAL PRACTICES
THAT ARE VIOLENT TOWARDS WOMEN
98. Violence agair twomeninthe familyinthe name ofculthre isoflensanctionedby
dominant ideologies and sthactures vdthin socieffes. These ideologies and sthactures emerged in
adifrerent erabut confinue to dominate public ordrdonandindMdual lifestfrs, thus Fevenr
— eradicationofFaclices that are hanufulto women.
A. TI regulafionof female senality
99. Manyofthe cultural Facices discussed above are oflenbased on a ciety'sbeliefthat
— freedom ofa woman . esTeciallywith regard to her sexual i ntityshouldbe cunailed —
regulated. Nhny holars have reintedoutthatfearoffemale sexualityanditsexFessionis
resrer il le formanyofthelegalregimesthatorerate inthe culturalspliere. Thoughthe
regulaffon of xualityir ofar as it affects — iights and resrer ibthffes ofothers is a legibmate
acthñt 3 — Cairo Programme ofActionofthe InteniaffonalCor&erence onPopulaffonand
D lopuent — — Beijir Declarationadoptedbythe FomthWorldCor&erence onWomen
clearlystate that indMdual women have the iight lo a ife — sat i sf & sex life”. Trds
recogrdffon of men as sexual beir s is — cuimination ofmany ears ofworkby men
doctorsandacthists inthe areaofreFoducthe health. N flhele. manyculturalFacffces
denywomenthese iights and er ure that womenvtho trar gress societal nonns are punished
s rely.
IOU. Inmanycases, female xualityis regulatedbypli icaltolence andforce. Honour
killings, described above, are the most ofr ous examples. Women who fall in love, commit
adulter ç request d ,orce, or choose their on husbands are seen as trar gressors ofthe
boundaries ofarFopia t e sexualbehatour. Asa result theyare ibject to dir cttolence ofthe
most honific kind. The ki]]ing of men with impunityfor these trar gresthor is rerhars —
most oven example ofthe bntal confrol offemale sexuality.
FJCN.4 12002 183
pige 29
101. There are other areas where female sexualityis regulatedbyforce. Mjst counties do not
recogrd2e marital rare asa crime, therefore sancffordng aceflainmea jre oftolencebythe
husbandagafr tthe vd± inthehome. JnarecentcaseinMexico,the N xicanSuFemeComt
heldthata}iusband'srareofrdsvdfe snotreallyrare,asmaniagewaslegallyFenhi dona
renuanent right ofaccess to conjugal relaffor . 6 ' The limitaffon of men 's xual rights within
maniage — oflenledto a great deal ofabuse inthe family. It is ordyrecenilyandordyinafew
juii iicffor that marital mre is being recogrdzed as a tolent ciime.
102. Womenwho frar gress theboundaiies ofarFopiate xualbehaviour, ewnincouithies
where honourlW]ingsdo not take place, are oflen ibjecttotolence. The noffonofciimes of
ression or Fovoca on has oflenbeen u d to jusfffymurder ofwomen vtho engage in xual
acthtityoutside maniage. Inaddifforç non-hete jsexualoiientaffor are a]so punisheds rely.
P cenily, inZirthabwe, a Jung lesbian manwas lockedupbyherfamilyandforcedto
submit to rare byanoldermanto conec1' heroiientation. She was rareduntilshebecame
Fegnant. 62
103. Crdldmaniage, forcedmaniage andincestare additional fonns ofdli ctabuse that
regulate female sexuality. Ignoth women and Jung gir]s as inditdualscareble of making
choices about their]M these Faclices ibject manywomento unwanted x andrare, thus
desfro dng their ]Msand their life retential.
104. Besiths the own u1 offorce such as in — cases ouuined above, female sexualityis
regulatedinmore jbtle n byflueats offorce orthe withdrawaloffarnilybeneflts —
Fotecifon. Women vtho fall in low with men ofa different etrwic groug class or conmiurdly
are oflensubjectto this kindofFe ure to er ure thattheirbehatourcor&onusto — nonusof
— family. In the contexts, men's iight to confrol their on l ,es counts for little, as do
girls' and men's claims to lil eflyorfreedom ofexFe iorc a ociafforç mowmentandbodily
integrity. For example, — case ofa l2- ar-old Ron girl who s raredbya neigMour —
thenforcedbyherfamilyto manyrdm is anexample ofthe reweroffarnilies to make gir]s —
women cor&onu. 63 The remedyofman ng — rapist is a corthion one and found in many
juri iicffor . In such cases, — family's honour istolated — the familynegoffates a
comFomse with the offender.
B. Masculithty am! vioIe ' e
105. In recent time anthrorelogists and holars have reinted out that in ceflain contexts
and in ceflain socieffes, beir masculine” in an ideal ir ,oWes a tolerance oftolence. 64
Innny cieties, — i alofheroic ma ulfrdtyreqthres acceptance ofthe noffonofhonour
andthetolentregulationoffemale xuality Infact noffor ofmasculirdtyare integrally
lird ed to relicing — behaviour ofwomen. Heroic men in the jcieties use violence as a
mear offmTheiingjusffceandthesocialgood buttheyt usetolencetoer ire that men
behave and are subordinate to their will.
106. The cor actior ofmascudtyareFe nt nvdflunthefamilyrelatior rdp. The
deflo eth ofthe tginceremonyinmany cieffesisanexamp l e ofhowma ulfrdty,
violence — — xualityofwomenare s tholicallycor ncted. The weddir rdght
deflo eraffonir ,oWesthe maniedcouplebeir takento a roominthe house. The relath,e
EJCN.412002t83
pige 30
bothmale andfemale, ttinanffciraffon. Once — sexualactis cor mmuated . — woman
mustbleedandthisbloodmustbe dJspIa dto the restofthe familyto wove thatthe man
was a tgin — that — man was not im retent. The dJsplayofthe stained sheet becomes the
cau1 ofgreat ceIebratior . This public srectacle ofa te moment rerhars illusfrates —
underl & assumpffor that ardmate relatior rdrs beb een men and men in Jme societies. 65
107. The heroic male rersonalitywhose masculithtyis clo totolence is notordythe
fradiffonal man from Meditenanean and Mddle Eastern socieffes that bei in honour. P cent
sffidiesshowthatth is i soflenthedominantrarathgmintheUrdtedState forexample ,as
reflectedinrepularculthre. It is oflenmanifestedinthe legacyofthe co *of andis oflen
reflectedinthe moderncinema. 66 Cnatrage, angerandthe use oftolence as alegifimate mear
ofresoWing cordlict is Fe lent in manyofthe films that are made in most rens ofthe rld.
l O X. It is tne that not all cor tncffor ofmasculirdtyare tolent. There is a]so — rewefful
moralideabofthe se]iresfrained. dJscir& d. areñormanofthe Erdighterament whcse lir s
withtolence are farmore nuanced. orthe alternathe mode]s ofmasculfrdtythat have emerged
since — growth ofthe recent women 's movement. Ho ever , unless theie is public educafict
— camraigr to fryand counter — negafive images oftolent men as idea]s for a societ3 the
heroicmalestereot e inmany cietiesny s tfflbethe onecan3& the gun. Suchanidealhas
señous cor equences for women.
IV. STATE RESPONSIBILITy
109. Inthe restStateshavebeenreluctanttointelvenevdthregardtoculthralFacffcesinthe
famil ç oflen statfr that this is a Tate” matter and — State — no obligaffon in — domain
ofthe domestic”. T}uoughoutthe world . domestictolence — arelybeenFo cutedbecau
offlüs teIpublic difrerenifaffon. However, since the 1980s, internaffonalstandards have
emerged that are veryclear on — matter ofdomesffc tolence and the duffes ofStates to
eradi ate tolence inthe family.
110. The r claraffon on — Elirninaffon ofviolence agair t Women states clearly
tates shouldcondenmtolence agath6t menandshouldnot ir ,oke any
custom, fradiffon or religiouscor ideration to avoid their obligaffor with resrect to its
eliminaffon. States should pursue byall arFopiate mear — without delaya reicyof
eliminaffngtolence agair twomen. ' '
The r claraffon goes onto saythat States should exercise due di]igence to Fevent ]r (estlgate
and, in accordance vdthnaffonal legislafforc punish acts oftolence agafr t womerç whether
those acts are reiretratedbythe State orbypi te actorc. 6 B
Ill. The r claraffon a]so srecifies — lyre ofacifon a State should take to eLiminate tolence
inthe home: it must d lop arFopiate renal legislaffon; it must cor ithrd lopir national
plar ofacifon to eliminate tolence agair t women; in the light ofthe available resources it
must Fotde social seitces for mentchms oftolence; it must take measures to er ure that
public officialsenthistedwithimplemenffngthe la s — adequate trairdng to ser iffze themto
— needsofwomerçanditmuster urethatadecjuate resourcesare taside inthe govenmient
FJCN.4 12002 183
pige3l
budget to combattolence inthe family. All these Fotsior are abj containedingeneral
reconmiendaffon 19 ofthe Committee onthe ErnuinationofDiscthuinationagafr tWomerc
where the legal obligation ofstate renies to the Cor ,ention on — E]irninaffon ofAll Fonus of
Discñmination agafr t Women is srelled out with regard to tolence agair t women. Both the
documents make it clear that at — begfrwing ofthe b enty-flrst centhi 3 — action ofstate
renies maybe measured agafr t international standards that clearlyai*ulate a strategyfor the
eliminaffonoftolence agair twomeninthe family. Byarguing that custonb traditionand
religioncaratotbe fr tokedbyState rathesto defendtolence agafr twomeninthe fan& ç
rnternational standards reject — culthralrelathttargmuentthatculthralFacffces that are
tolenttrnrndswomeninthe familyshouldbe srdeldedfrom internaffonal nffny.
112. Itisoflenarguedthat — hmuanlightsarFoacrc withits emphasis onlawand
punisrauent maynotbe v elyFoduc i v e inflghffngtolence agafr twomenonthe ground.
Manyacthtistsfeelthatthe emphasis shouldbe placedoneducationandhealthstrategies that
combataffiffides overthe long tenti. However, rdstoiydoeshave examplesofhowsfrong —
efrecuve la s have einünatedceflainFacffces vdthina matterof ars. Inindia. the enacthient
ofthe Srecial Act of 1870 eradicated — Facice offemale fr&anffcide in — NoflhWest
o es. The Govenmient inrewercliminali2edthe Facice, mordtoredFegnancies andput
rarents injailwho engagedinthe Faclice. By1906, — Gjvenmient vdtlbtewt} legislaffon
because it s so efrecuve. In Crana, — rest-war regimes eradicated Factices mach as foot
binding vdththe 1me detenuination. The existence ofa cñminal ircffon er ures thatrarents
have anexcuse to srare theircrdldsucha Factice. The lawallo s rarents anyto avoidgMng
into JcialFessure andcustom. Withoutsuchalaw,itisdifliculttoeradirate aFacliceina
gene muon.
113. Ho ever, there is no doubtthathealthandeducaffonstrategies are exfremelyimreflant
for long-tenti change and — developuent ofa commurdty. A great deal ofempliasis shouldbe
placed on such Fograrthies in cooreraffon with local women's grours rIdng for —
eradiaffon ofhannful Facices. The fr ,oWement oflocal women's grours and ci l societyin
— movementto eradicate hanufulFaclices is — ordyguarantee thatthe Fac cc will not
re-emerge in the futhre.
114. Manycountiies have d lored interesfing strategies to deal with cultural Facices in the
familythat are tolent to rnds women. Women's grours are d lopir fraio the to
challenge — u1 offradiffon as a raffonale for conffnuedtolence. Vaiious Fojects demor frate
how men's grours work with the legislature, religious and other leaders, fami]ies —
commurdties to change affiffides andFacffces. The Fojects ]r ,oWe cor ,entional method
such as legal acfforç legal changes and awareness-raJsfr events, as well as uncor ,entional
acth,iffes. Familybyfarnily, conuuurdtybyconuuurdt 3 the Fojects arebuildir resTectfor
— ]Msofwomenandgirlsandanunderstandir thatgender-basedtolaffor are notintegral
to anyfradiffon or culthre.
115. One ofthe major developuents in — legal field has been the refonu ofthe Ci l Code in
Turkey, forvdiichthe men's movementhasbeenlobb dng formany ars. The amended
CMlCodeabo]ishesthe Femacyofmeninr iageandallo swomentohavea 1yinall
mattersrelatir to the maniage, thus establisrang — ecjua]ityofmenandwomeninthe fairdly. 6
Ir&onuaffonFotdedto the SrecialRarTefleurbythe GovenmientofDemuarkindicatesthat
tJLJ'1 A! 2UU2flSi
ege 32
the Danish Alien Act ns amended in 2000 to pevent reople fmm being foited into a mariiage.
The Government of t nmark has further taken sters to secure the immigration status of women
brought to E* nmark for the puzp of maniage, if these women leave their husbands becau of
familytelatedviolence. Itis not onlyim xntant to amend existing laws, it is a]so nece aryto
ess new laws, such as the lawbanning FOM in government hospitals in Egypt. Legal action in
the courts is another area that has been develoFd to deal with gender-ba dviolence. One such
interesting case comes from Ken , where two teenaged daughters obtainedacourt injunction
restraining their father from foiting them to undeip FGM.
116. Legalmeasuiesaie notenoughif opIe aie not educatedaboutthe cialfflsofMimful
traditional practices. Awareness-raising activities aze impflnt to educate the community !n
Tajilcistan, a local NGO, Ghamkhoii, is involved in combating violence against women
through education?° Various social i ues, such as reproductive health, human tights, gender
relations and domestic violence ate taught and discus d through role -pIa áng, games,
questions-and-answers, small group work, illustrated caltls/pDsters, resliciretive rural appraisal
techniquesando n-endedstoties. These projects also train local religious leaders, medical
rersonnel, w]ice rersonnel and schoolteachers, as weli as providing seivices such as women's
centres andbasic gynaecolc ical seivices. The involvement of males in these programmes is
common and necessazybecause theyaze termed the decision malce]s of the communities. In
Denmark, the Ministryof Health has startedaninfonnationcam eignconcenuing FOM. The
aim of the catn ign is to prevent Ft3M of girls living in Denmark and to inform teachers, cial
workers and health care rersnnel about this subject.
117. The media too have an imwrtant role to playin providing information. But this
infonnationcouldbe adverse to the women's rights agenda if it is not pro erlymonitored.
Media cam igns canbackfire on occasion if theysensationalizk the issues or if theyonly
publish hostile reprts and :ersonal attacks about the concerned activists and law ers. The
Nereli orzanization Sancharilca Samuha (Women Communicators Forum) has conducted various
activities on media advocacyand gender and e ualit5ç through gender training, media
monitoring, publications and talk programmes.
118. Other creative wa ,s have been used to invoke a sen of com ion and commitment to
protecting women's human rights. One such success has been the alternative rites of e age
project in Kenya? 2 It is a communityinitiative that sup xnts the ritual coming of age ceremony
without the practice of FGM A new rite known as tirtumcision through worth” has replaced
FGM itself The process includes a week-long programme of counselling and celebration. The
retticirents ate taught about their role as women, rarents and adults and theyaze also educated
in areas such as çersonal health, reproductive issues, hygiene, communication skills, self-esteem
and reer pressure. While doing away with the dangerous practice, it captutes the cultural
significance of FGM. Such alternative rites have now spread to other countries like
Guinea-Bis u and Gambia.
119. While tortuze-lilce practices that involve severe rein and sufFering mustbe corthatedby
the forte of law and intensive programmes with regard to health and education, mc6t countries
ate reluctant to adopt such a draconian approach towattis religious and customary laws relating
to the family. Since these laws are said to reflect deeplyheldvalues, manyactivists have felt
thatadifferent approach is neces ry. State parties to the Convention on the Elimination of All
FJCN.4 12002 183
pige 33
Fonns ofrli thrdnaffonagair t Womenare underadeflrdte obligaffontobth theirla s into
cor onance withinternaffonalstandards. Trds requiresecjuahtybet eenthe xes vdthinthe
familyandfreedom ofautonomyforthe raltlers. Ho ewr , countñes like SouthAfiicahaw
attemptedto Feselve the d terthtyofculthral Facticesbyallow forcustomaiylawvdiile
er ur € that ceflain niirdmum core iights are granted to men. In addifforç couples are gwen
— opifonon their wedding dayofchoosir customaiylaw or a lawthat is imçdredby
documents like — Cor ,enffon. This lyre of arFoach allo s for women s iights to be
safeguardedwithout completelyowrhaulir the s temofcustomaryandrersonallawsthatare
oflen u d as tags ofidenffl 3 fbyceflain conmrnrdffes. States are under — obligation to
FewntdJscflnünaffonagair twomercbutthe arFoachtowards eradicatir thatdjsciinünaffon
can iyderendir on — realiffes ofa g Ten ciety.
V. RECOMMEM ATIONS
A. AttI intemathnallevel
120. State reities should sign — Cor ,enffon on — RUmination ofAll Fonns of
Disciimination agair t Women without resen ition so as to er ure a comniitmenttrnrnds
international standards ofequalitybeb een the sexes.
121. State renies shouldreferto — r claraffononthe R]iminationofviolence agair t
Women to Fotde efreciw guidelims for the eradi affonoftolence agair t women in the
family.
122. Internaffonalanddonoragencies shouldplayanfrder te andacth,istrole inhelpir to
eradjate toitjre.like culthralFacffces that cause severe reinandsufreth to thetcffm.
B. AttI mfiomflwel
123. States shoWdnotir ,oke anycustom, fradiffonorreligiouscor iderationto avoidtheir
obligaffon to eradi ate tolence agair t women and — girl crald in the family.
124. States should exercise due diligence to Fevent, ir tesffgate and, in accordance with
national legislafforc pmish acts oftolence agair t womerç whether these acts are relrefratedby
— State orbyrState actors.
125. States should d lop renal, cMl — admirdstraffw sanctior in domestic legislaffon to
punishtolence inthe familyandto Fotde redressto mentchiu ewnifthetolence is
associatedwithaculthral Factice. The renalsancffonshouldbe strong andefreciw andnot
merelyonrarer.
126. States shouldd lopnaffonalplar ofactionto eradicate tolence inthe family,
renicularl 2 iolence relatedto culthral Facticestr oughhe a lthandeducationFogranmes at —
grass.roots l l.
127. Statesshouldd lop Jcial McesandFotdesheltersaimedathelpir women
tchms oftolence in the familyto escare from human iights tolaffor .
EJCN.412002t83
rage 34
128. States shouldfrainall public officia]s inthe admirJsfralionofjustice, educalionand
healthsectors tobe ser ithe andenergelic vdthregardto issues relatfr totolence agair t
women.
129. States should adopt all arFopiate measures in — field ofeducalion to modifythe social
andculthralrattenls ofconductthatfosterculthralFaclices inthe familythatare tolent
towards women.
130. States should collect data and statislics on the ren isiwness ofcultural Faclices that are
tolent to rds wome rç j as to er ure the dewlopuent of arT opiate shategies for their
eradic a lion.
131. States shouldinclude — mea irestheyhave takento combatculthralFaclices that are
tolenttrnrndswomenintheirrereflsunderrele mnt hmuanñghtsir tniments.
132. States shouldrecogrdze the imreflant role thatwomen'sgrours andwomen's
orgardzatior playin — eradicalion ofcultural Facices that are tolent towards women and
g e them all nece arysurTefl and encouragement.
Notes
‘The Srecial RarTefleur would like to thaa and acknowledge the briefing rarersFeraredfor
flüsrereflbyMs. SaamaRajakanna. Ms. SusanaT. FriedandMs. Alice M Nhller
2 A Nhlian man was recentlyjailed for eight pars ±br circumcising 2 gir]s, follovdng a ial
inParis. (EEC Ordine Neb ork . 17 Febnaryl999).
I D Febnaryl998. The HumanPights Ir&onuationNeb ork(HURll ET).
In the Urdted Kingdom, in May1999, — NotlinghamCronComtsentenceda Paldstard
woman and her gron-up Jn to life impi muent for murdeth the woman's daughter,
Ruk} anaNaz, aFegnant mother of b o craldren. Ruk} ana s rerceiwd to haw brought
shame onthe fan&ybyhavir a xualrelatior rdpoutside maniage. Herbrotrerrerefledly
sfrangledRuk} ana. wrdle her mother held her don. (Anmestylnteniational, Pahstan: honour
killings ofgirls and men” ASAI33I1899, Septer er 1999, p. 4 ). There is a]so — case of
ZenaE r iggswhohadnthedanEnglishmaninspfteofherrarents 'dec i sioontomanyhertoa
cousininPaldstan. To this day, adeathsentence is hangir owrthe couple as Zena'srarents
— emplo dreople to kill them (Amnestyintenialiona]. Pakthtan: Violence agath6t men
in the name ofhonom” ASAI33I17j99, Septer er 1999, p. 8).
Inthe Englishlanguage, honommear rdghestee , resrect recogrdliorc djslincliorç pi lege,
reputalion or a woman's chastityor purity.
6 The case ofAmanujlah illusfrates t ds reint. Amanujlah manied a woman vtho had earlier
beenfondofhercousinNazii amaniedmanwitheight crdldren. AsNazirwas unable to obtain
FJCN.4 12002I83
pige 35
cor ent from her farnilyto manyher, Natr murdered Amanuilah and then killed Ms on
frthocentsisteranddeclaredthet ofthemasKaroandKañ. Aflerabiiefpi nteim.Nazir
was gwen Amanuilah's wife li i comrer affon for — surTesed ir&iingement ofrds honour.
(Anmestylnteniational/Paldstan: HonourIdllir sofgir]sandwomenThSAt33Il899,
Septerther 1999, p. 9 )
In — case ofshaheerç herhusband allegedlyset her on fire li i Decer er 1998 li i a
Satta-watta context. Their maniage had rat into frouble and Anwar, her husband, wanted to
sendherhome. But Shaheen'sbrother, maniedto An r'ssister, refusedto ndrds vdfe home
as well. Annrfoundno othernyto remove Msshame thanto killrds wife. (Amnesty
Inteniaffona], TaIdstan: HonourlW]ingsofgir]s andwomen” ASA133I18I99, September 1999,
p. 6 ).
Sirhan, a 35- ar-oldJordanianis Foudofhavir IdlledMssisterbyshooffng herfourtimes
inthehead. Herciimewastorerefltothe relicethatshehadbeenrared. Sirhansigneda
pledge not to hanu her. Accordir to ram, Ms sister committed a mistake, even ifit was agair t
herwill. He cor idersitbetterto have one rersondie thanto have — whole familydie from
shame. Sirhan seived onlys montr injail. (Ir&onuation submitted to — Srecial RarTefleur
by L.Be pr).
Acouple eremaniedforl6 arsandallwaswellunrnthevdfe gotajobandstanedto
comehome lateandrefu dto ayherconjugaldebC. Thehusbandldlledherandwas
acquitted on — legibmate defence ofhonour. The decision s upheld on arTeai (Ir&onuaffon
subrnittedto — Srecial RarTefleurbyP.Turgut).
The D ndathsofKuththirdtllage: tctlir ofaderdgratedculture”, Groots Newsletter
Working Women's For m 1998, at vw.ashanet.onIliljradai*lesIde dasis.l998l2.hthil
The Trokosi: religious slaveryin Ghana”byObene Amrer ahat
vw.anti-slaverv.onklobaWhanaj
12 A.de.V. thaar,D.Offi a,C.Pa e,ToL e inFear: WitcMunür andN diine
Murderin venda HumanSciences P searchCounci], 1992.
Subrni ionbyHelpAge International to — Srecial RarTefleur, Septer er 2001.
14 SffidyonfrathffonalFacffces afrecing — healthofwomenand crdldrerç finalrerefibythe
SrecialRarTefleurofthe Sub-Conmii iorç Ms. HahmaESjarekWn; July1991,
(EJCN.4ISub .21199116).
SucMfrachoudhm 3 The womanaswitch”, The Statesmarç 7November 1993.
16 v w.wo m er ene w s.onIaifrle . cfmjd&4lslcontextlarcrth,e
EJCN.412002t83
pige 36
G 1st flix ,* th,a on: A Cqobal G,ncnn. A rerUn byHmuan Bights Watch for the
UrdtedNaffor World cor&erence agair tRacis Racial Discñminatiorç Xenor iobia and
B lated Intolerance, Enrban South Mñca. September 2001, Au jst 2001
The Buraku sem s abo]jshed in 1871 bythe Bñtish. In inderendent India it
cor ffffiffonallyabolished in 1950. Even though — cor fftuffon Fordbits djscñnünaffon on the
basis ofcaste inNeraithere is anexcepffonforHindureligious Facces.
qndia:tolence agair twomen- adouble di thuination' Anmestylnteniational,
ASA20jU29I200l.
20 Publishedbythe (UrdtedKingdom) Home Office Communicaffor Directorate, June 2000.
21 See UrdwrsalDeclaraffonofHmuanBights, aiticle l6;Cor ,enffononthe fliminalionofAjl
Fonns ofrli thrdnaffonagair t Womerç ai*le l6;GeneralB commendaffonNo. 21 ofthe
Conmiittee onthe Hliunaffonofrli thrdnaffonagair t Women.
22 The B tew 4 - 10 Marcrç 1999.
23 The conceptthatawomancoWdbe eraavedas awife was intemaffonallyrecogrdzedinthe
Supplementa wCor tenffononthe AboliffonofSlawi 3 — Slave Trade, andJrsffffiffor and
Practices Similar to Slavel3 1956.
24 vw.epualit jw.onjbei rluss tolence e .htnil
25 Ta dor, D. SeMle Nhniages: Ir tituffonahsedSlavew Anti-SlaveiyB refl 1994,
26 A Maffn of Power: £ 1at Crn*oI of em n Mrgmity Thrhtv, Human Bights Watcrç
vol 6, No 7, June 1994
27 B efl ofthe Fomth World Cor&eience on Women. Beiji . annex I, resoluffon I, 1995
UrdtedNaffor Publicafforç Sales No. E.96.IV.13.
Words — deeds: holdir Gownmients accountable in — Beijing + S re ew Focess” at
v w.epualit jw.onIacffon e 16 4.htnil .
The legal age ofcor ent for maniage is different for men and men and is usuallylower for
women. Trds is — case incoun ieslike Colorta. Jaran. Mexico andTurkey.
Athcle 7 &the Mali 1992 Code ofManiage and Guardiar rdp allows men to opt for
relwamy. Theycan a]so do j in Algeña — Tara,rda.
Athcle 158 ofthe Mexican Ci Code Fotdes that a woman cannot remanyuntil 300 da
afler the djs jluffon of the maniage.
FJCN.4 12002I83
pige 37
32 In Israe]. — d ,orce ofJe s is deci dbyrabbirical comts. In — case ofPlordt V Plordt the
High Rahbirdc Comt in 1995 and the SuFeme Comt in 1997 ur ieId — decision that d ,orce is
granted enthelyon — decision whether — man wants it.
EcjuahtyNow, Uganda: exclusionofwomenfrcm landownersrdp- the lostcause
Women s Acfforç August 2000 at vncegualit ow.o Iacffon e 17 I . htnil
B refl ofthe WorIdr Group on Tradiffonal Practices afrectfr — Health ofWomen
and Craidren to — Commission on Human BJghts at its foit -second session in 1986
(EJCN.4ll986142) . pira. 143.
Preliminaiyrereflofthe SrecialRarTefleurofthe Suh-Conmiissiorç Nk Hahn
EmbarekWn , on traditional Facticesafrectir — health of women and crdldren
(E l C N. 415 ub .21199516).
36 Mewof UNICEF acthtiffesrelaffng totolence agath6t menandcrdldrenvdflunthe
framework ofthe Cor ,enffon on the Bights ofthe Crdld; conesTendence with — Srecial
RarTefleur.
A Jor torç S. R. Burnett and S.C. Bott Toward the 21st Centav The Populaffon Ir ffffite,
No.1 ,1995.
Roxaraje Carillo, Batteredrteams: Violence air tWomanas anObstacle to r wlo nt
New York . UNIFEMSaIes pubhcaffon No. WE DII, 1992.
Final rerUn ofthe sffidyon traditional pmcffces afrectir — health ofwomen and crdldrenby
— SrecialRarTefleurofthe Sub-Comrnissiorç Ms. Halima ESjarekWai zi
(EJCN.4ISub .21199116).
Pak i stan - Girl Crald i n EsTeciallydifficult circumstances - rerUn fc presentaffon at SAP RC
meeing on CCEDS, 1995.
Note 36abow.
42 Note 3 sabow.
Athcle C.
These counties include Afghardstarc Iran . Algeiia. Turkey, Morocco andNhla ia.
A scajithat covers the haii forehead — neck.
46 A ganuentthatcovers menfromheadto toe withordyasmallorerdng nearthe e es;
sometimes that area is covered with a mesh cloth.
° BjiffatHassan. Women's Bights inlslam: Fromthe I.C.P.Dto Beijir .
EJCN.4I2002t83
pige 38
P becca 3. Cook. Intenialional Proteclion ofWomen's P Foducthe PJghts. New york
Urth,ersity Jomnal oflntenialional Law and Politics vol 24, Winter 1992, No.2, p.o 4 5 .
Note 45 abow, p. 6 47 .
Womenofthe World: Laws andPolicies afreci theirP p ducthe L ,es - LalinAme r ica
andthe Caribbean . The Centre forP Foducthe LawandPolicy, 1997, p.l 3 .
P becca 3. Cook — Maranoud F. Fathalla. A&tancing reFoducthe rights be nd Cairo —
Beijfr ”, in Intenialional FamilvPlarwir Persrecthe. vol. 22, No.3, Septer er 1996, p. 117
52 Facing — Challenges ofHIV, AIDS, STDs: A Oerder-BasedB srer e 1995, KIT,
SAPAIr , / iO.
Dr. Naf]s Sadi Thcisior ford lopuent: womerç emrewenuentard reFoducthe
health”, The State ofWorld Popahtion 1995 Urdted Nalior Population Fund. p. 49 .
Ir&onualionFotdedto — SrecialRarTefleurbythe GownmientofGuatemala.
SffidyonfrathlionalFacices afrecing — healthofwomenand crdltherç Final rereflofthe
SrecialRarTefleurofthe Sub-Conmii iorç Ms. HarnuaEitharekWn . July1991
(EJCN.4ISub .21199116).
56 Note 52 above, p. 4 5 .
Anorexia Neivosa — B lated Paling Disorders, Inc. at w w.ar ed.cornicauses.hthil .
Uo ide Mause, The urdwrsalityofincesI', Journal ofPswhordstor Fall 1991 vol. 19,
No.2.
S re somatic reactior , derersonalizaliorc se]ihafred. h te± a lsei res, deFessiorc
borderline rer Jnamyfonualiorc Fom i scuit c sexuald functior , jicide, ]imutilaliorç rdght
tenorsandflasMack mulliple rer nalities, rest-fraunlatic sfress djsorders, delinquency,
buliniiaandthe owrallsffinlingoffeelir sandcaracities. Uo iDeNhuse/The mthtersality
ofincesI' Journal ofP hordstorv Fall 1991, vol. 19, No.2.
60 In £bi Sa M hra V fl Ihi Adminis&a on and Anoth July1996, — SuFeme Comt of
India thoughtthatitwas incredible to accuse — fatherofrapir rdstr ee- ar-oldgin —
irfladaccusedthe motherofl ffing faise accusatior to take revenge onherhusbandforan
mthappymaniage. BrokenPeorle: Caste Violence a air t India's tntouchables” , Human
Bights Watch 1999, Urdted States ofAmerica.
61 See Eduardo Moline yVeda. N xico: SuFeme Comt legitimizesrare ofsreu crilics
sa l' ht Imembers. aol.comincmdrIirsne sIhtrn]. 16 June 1997.
FJCN.4 12002 183
pige 39
62 See Amnestyinteniaffong Ciimes ofhate cor th yofsilence: Toitre andifi-freathient
based on Sexual Identity New York . Amnestylnteniaffona]. 2001, p. 39 .
63 Teshmonyat — Women at the Inter cffon ofRacism — Other OrFessior : A Human
Bights Heath , orgardzedbythe Center for Women's Global Leadership at the NOD For m
durir the WorldCor&erence agafr tRacis Racial rli thrdnafforç Xenor iobiaandB lated
Intolerance, Dmban. 2001.
64 See Suzaraje E. Hafi 3 ulfrdffesandViolence”(LordordNewDelrd. Sage, 2000)
orA. Coni llandNancyUndJsfanie ed. tislocaffr Masculirdties”(NewYork.
Routeledge, 1994).
65 NancyLindisthnie, Vañantmasculirdffes, irianhtgfrdffe rethinldng honourandshame
hA. Coninil andother ed. tislocaffr Masculfrdties' p. 82 .
66 See Suzaraje E. Hafi 3 note 64, chars. 4 and 5.
67 Declaration on the FEminaffon ofViolence agair t Womerç FoclaJmedbythe
Urdted Naffor General As r lyin re jluffon 2Il04 of2O r cember 1993.
Athcle 4(c) ofthe Declaraffon.
v w.wranet . orzlnews . hfrnl .
Ir&onuaffonFotdedbyColette Han s, F ogianuue rlirector, Womeninlnteniational
D lopuent, crnce oflrdeniational B searchandD lopuent, Virgiria Tecrwicalurthtersity,
UrdtedStatesofAmeñca.
‘ I Ir&onuaffonFotdedbyBandanaRana, Execufiw Presi nt ofSancharikaSamuha atthe
AsiaPacific regional cor ultaffonwiththe Srecial RarTefleur, 2001.
WithanEndinS ht: Strategies fromthe UNWEMTnmst Fundto RUminate Violence a air t
Women . UrdtedNaffor D lopuent FundforWomerç2000.
