Aadel Collection
Report of the Special Rapporteur on adequate housing as a component of the right to an adequate standard of living, Miloon Kothari
UNIItL )
NATIONS
Economic and Social Distr.
Council
GENERAL
E/CN.4/2006/4 1/Add.2
21 March 2006
Original: ENGLISH
COMMISSION ON HUMAN RIGHTS
Sixty-second session
Item 10 of the provisional agenda
ECONOMIC, SOCIAL AND CULTURAL RIGHTS
Report of the Special Rapporteur on adequate housing as a component
of the right to an adequate standard of living, Miloon Kothari
Addendum* **
MISSION TO THE ISLAMIC REPUBLIC OF IRAN
(19-31 July 2005)
* The summary is being circulated in all languages. The full report, annexed to the summary,
is being circulated in English only.
** In accordance with paragraph 8, section B, of General Assembly resolution 53/208, the late
submission of this report is due to the need to reflect the latest developments.
C
GE.06-11930 (E) 310306
E/CN.4/2006/4 1/Add. 2
page 2
Sununary
OEe present report is submitted in accordance with Commission on Human Rights
resolution 2004/21.
OEe purpose of the mission to the Islamic Republic of Iran of the Special Rapporteur on
adequate housing as a component of the right to an adequate standard of living was to examine
and report on the status of the realization of adequate housing as a component of the right to an
adequate standard of living, with particular attention to aspects of gender equality and
non-discrimination. He also sought to engage in dialogue with the Government, United Nations
and international agencies and civil society, and to identify practical solutions and best practices
in the realization of rights related to his mandate.
OEe Special Rapporteur commends the Government of the Islamic Republic of Iran for
extending a standing invitation to all thematic special procedures of the Commission on Human
Rights and welcomes the willingness of the Government to implement the right to adequate
housing and related rights recognized in the Iranian Constitution and in human rights treaties.
OEe report draws attention to a number of positive trends and best practices observed by the
Special Rapporteur during his mission, such as the considerable number of governmental
bodies carrying out work to improve housing conditions in the country, the serious attempts
made by the Government to ensure access to water, electricity and sanitation across Iran since
the Revolution, the emphasis given in governmental housing policies to vulnerable and
marginalized groups, such as widow heads of household and deprived recently-married couples,
as well as the reconstruction eLorts in Bam and preventive measures undertaken in
disaster-prone areas.
The Special Rapporteur also raises concerns with respect to existing obstacles to the
realization of the human right to adequate housing. OEe challenges refer mainly to the
prohibitive costs of housing in the country and policies and programmes which do not seem to
result in improved access to adequate housing for the very poor. The Special Rapporteur has
identiffied four main elements that may help to explain such failure: (a) inaccessibility of
government credit facilities, leasing and pro-housing savings programmes to the very poor;
(b) distortions in government incentives to large-scale builders for the production of low-price
housing units; (c) urban bias in the planning of housing programmes; and (d) the lack of
coordination between diLerent government branches, agencies and organizations responsible for
implementation. In addition, the Special Rapporteur also would like to express concern for the
continued discrimination faced by ethnic and religious minorities and nomadic groups, as
reflected in the disproportionately poor housing and living conditions of these groups; the
considerable number of alleged cases of land conffiscation and forced evictions; discrimination
against women with respect to housing rights, land, inheritance and property; and the poor and
limited quantity and quality of basic services provided to informal settlements and poor
neighbourhoods.
OEroughout his report, the Special Rapporteur also tries to highlight progress made
and the potential scope for further action. He formulates a number of recommendations to
the Government of the Islamic Republic of Iran, including: legal and administrative review
E/CN.4/2006/41/Add.2
page 3
of the doctrine of eminent domain” that prevents individuals and groups from challenging
State acquisition of housing and land; the development of further policies to ensure
women's equal access to housing, land, property and inheritance; adoption of policies to
avoid land and housing speculation and commodiffication”; further attention to historically
marginalized provinces, such as 11am, Khuzestan and Sistan-Baluchestan; public participation
in the elaboration of development plans and in the preparation and assessment of housing
projects; and the reinforcement, expansion and implementation of policies aimed at groups
in vulnerable situations and ethnic and religious minorities, such as Kurds, Baha'is, Laks
and Arabs.
E/CN.4/2006/4 1/Add. 2
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Annex
REPORT OF THE SPECIAL RAPPORTEUR ON ADEQUATE
HOUSING AS A COMPONENT OF THE RIGHT TO AN
ADEQUATE STANDARD OF LIVING, MILOON KOTHARI,
ON HIS MISSION TO THE ISLAMIC REPUBLIC OF IRAN
(19-31 JULY 2005)
CONTENTS
Paragraphs Page
Introduction 1 - 10 5
I. LEGAL-INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK AND MAIN
HOUSING POLICIES 11-31 6
A. Institutional framework 11 - 16 6
B. Main legal provisions 17 - 21 7
C. Main housing policies 22 - 31 8
II. ADEQUATE HOUSING IN CONTEXT: LIVING
CONDITIONS IN THE ISLAMIC REPUBLIC OF IRAN 32- 73 10
A. Security of tenure 34 - 47 10
B. Provision of basic services 48 - 51 13
C. Affordability 52 - 60 13
D. Accessibility - disaster prevention and reconstruction 61 - 73 15
III. THE RIGHT TO ADEQUATE HOUSING OF SPECIFIC
GROUPS 74- 102 17
A. Ethnic and religious minorities and nomads 76 - 93 17
B. Women's rights to housing, land and property 94 - 102 20
IV. CONCLUDING REMARKS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ... 103- 106 22
E/CN.4/2006/41/Add.2
page 5
Introduction
1. At the invitation of the Government of the Islamic Republic of Iran, the Special
Rapporteur on adequate housing as a component of the right to an adequate standard of living
undertook a mission to the country from 19 to 31 July 2005.
2. During the mission, meetings were organized with the Minister of Housing and Urban
Development and the Minister of Welfare and Social Security; with senior offcials from the
Ministry of Interior and Ministry of Foreign ALairs; national institutions and organizations
such as the Management and Planning Organization, the Housing Foundation, the Welfare
Organization, the Iranian Nomadic Organization, the Centre for Women's Participation and the
Imam Khomeini Relief Committee; the National Red Crescent Society; the Housing Bank
(Maskan); members of the judiciary; the Headquarters for the Execution of Jmam's Order and
Parliament (Construction Commission); the Iranian Islamic Human Rights Commission; local
authorities, civic and community organizations and lawyers dealing, among others, with
women's human rights, the living conditions in disadvantaged neighbourhoods and rights of
prisoners and victims of violence.
3. The Special Rapporteur also met with members of the diplomatic community in
Tehran and with the United Nations Resident Coordinator, the head of the United Nations
Development Programme (UNDP) in the Islamic Republic of Iran, as well as representatives
of the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF), the Offce of the United Nations
High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) and the World Health Organization (WHO).
4. The Special Rapporteur places particular emphasis on the need to undertake fleld visits,
both in urban and rural areas, in order to gain ffirst-hand understanding of diLerent types of
accommodations enjoyed by various social groups in the country. For this reason, he visited
diLerent neighbourhoods in and around Tehran and the provinces of Kermanshah, Kerman,
Khuzestan, Boyerahmad va Kohgiluye and Fars. In addition, he heard testimonies on the
housing situation in the provinces of 11am and Sistan-Baluchistan.
5. The overall programme for the Special Rapporteur's mission was coordinated by
UNDP-Iran with the support of the Iranian Ministry for Foreign ALairs. Non-governmental
organizations and individual activists provided essential information for the Special Rapporteur's
assessment of the housing situation in the Islamic Republic of Iran. The Islamic Human Rights
Commission was instrumental in coordinating the fleld visits to Shiraz, Yassoj and Kermanshah,
while UNHCR coordinated the visit to Ahwaz. OEe Special Rapporteur appreciates their
assistance in setting up and carrying out the agenda for his mission. OEe Special Rapporteur
would also like to extend his gratitude to the former Special Rapporteur on the situation of
human rights in the Islamic Republic of Iran, Maurice Copithorne, for his support.
6. The purpose of the Special Rapporteur's mission was to examine and report on the status
of realization of the human right to adequate housing and other related rights in the country,
with particular attention to aspects of gender equality and non-discrimination, with a view to
promoting the incorporation of a human rights perspective at all levels of governance,
policymaking and implementation.
E/CN.4/2006/4 1/Add. 2
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7. Based on the provisions of legal instruments, the Special Rapporteur has adopted a
working deffinition of the right to adequate housing as the right of every woman, man, youth
and child to gain and sustain a secure home and community in which to live in peace and
dignity” (E/CN.4/2001/5 1, para. 8). Based on the notion that all human rights are interrelated
and indivisible, he has adopted a holistic approach to his mandate, and has sought to explore
linkages with other related rights such as the rights to food, water, health, access to sanitation,
work, property, the right to security of the person and security of home, and protection against
inhuman and degrading treatment in all of his activities with a special focus on minorities and
vulnerable or marginalized groups. The Special Rapporteur also focused particularly on women,
pursuant to his mandate under Commission resolutions 2002/49, 2003/22 and 2005/25 on
women's equal ownership of, access to, and control over land, and the equal rights to own
property and to adequate housing.
8. OEe Special Rapporteur recognizes the signifficant diffculties imposed on Iran by the fact
that most of the country's territory is located within an earthquake-prone zone and that many
parts of the country are constantly subject to severe drought. In addition, the eight years of war
with Iraq resulted in massive destruction of houses and infrastructure in border areas, the impact
of which is still a concern. Finally, the demand for housing is steadily growing as a result of
population increase, particularly in urban areas.
9. OEe Special Rapporteur had the opportunity to observe the concern amongst
governmental off cials with respect to the need for improved access to housing and an apparent
willingness to seek creative solutions to the country's housing defficit. Innovative thinking is
being promoted in the search for sustainable plans to extend basic services to the remote areas of
the country. OEe Special Rapporteur observed that access to utilities and basic infrastructure has
improved in the last 20 years. Despite such positive aspects, much still needs to be done to
enhance the quality and coverage of these civic services, to develop integrated housing policies,
to control speculation, and to democratize access to housing loans and facilities.
10. OEe same openness to sustainable and human rights-based solutions was not, however,
observed with regard to issues relating to discrimination in access to housing and civic services
for ethnic and religious minorities, or to women's rights to property, housing and inheritance.
Although the Government has emphasized that, with respect to ownership by women, the ffigures
from the last 10 years show a constant increase, the Special Rapporteur would like to draw
attention to these situations as they represent obstacles to the realization of adequate housing in
Iran.
I. LEGAL-INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK
AND MAIN HOUSING POLICIES
A. Institutional framework
11. OEe Islamic Republic of Iran is a theocratic republic formed by four branches of
Government: the Leadership, the executive, the judiciary and the legislature. OEe Leadership is
the uppermost authority, both in terms of political and religious power, with the Leader acting as
the Head of State.
E/CN.4/2006/41/Add.2
page 7
12. The legislature is formed by the Guardian Council and the Parliament (Majlis).
Legislation is approved by the Majlis, ratiffied by the Guardian Council and signed into law by
the President. The Guardian Council is a reviewing body with the responsibility to ensure that
all laws and regulations in the country are based on Islam, including articles of the Constitution.
In case of disagreement between the Majlis and Guardian Council on issues relating to
compliance with sharia or the Constitution, an Expediency Council appointed by the Leader
decides.
13. The judiciary consists of a Supreme Court and lower courts, divided into regular courts
(classiffied according to their area ofjurisdiction), clerical courts, revolutionary tribunals, and the
Court of Administrative Justice. OEis court, under the supervision of the head of the judicial
branch, investigates and judges any complaints by regular citizens against government offcials,
organs and statutes.
14. The executive is headed by an elected president. Aifier the 1989 amendments to
the 1979 Constitution, the president's powers were extended. He is today second in power
aifier the Leader, and also coordinates the work of the executive, the legislative and the
judiciary. OEe president is assisted by a cabinet formed by 22 ministers, including the
Minister for Housing and Urban Development, the head of the Crusade for Construction
(Jihad Sazandegi) and the Minister of Interior, who coordinates the work of the municipal
councils.
15. The Ministry for Housing and Urban Development is the main body of the executive
responsible for the planning and implementation of housing policies. Such policies are planned
with the technical support of the Management and Planning Organization.
16. Some governmental and non-governmental organizations also carry out programmes with
direct or indirect impact on housing rights. The Housing Foundation's activities focus on
post-disaster reconstruction and prevention and on improvement of housing conditions in rural
areas, where one of the main programmes is the documentation of real estate to facilitate
regularization of ownership (titles). The Welfare Organization and the Jmam Khomeini Relief
Committee have undertaken initiatives aimed at assisting women heads of households with down
payments to access banking facilities for housing purchase and direct cash transfers for
vulnerable groups to assist with regular household expenditure, including rent.
B. Main legal provisions
17. The right to a suitable dwelling is provided for in article 31 of the Constitution. In
addition, articles 3 and 43 both state that the national economy shall have as one of its objectives
the provision of basic necessities and the abolishment of all deprivation with respect to ...
housing”.
18. The Government's programme for the housing sector immediately aifier the revolution
was, to a large extent, based in public land ownership. OEree main pieces of legislation were
passed: the Urban Wasteland Ownership Law (1979); the Urban Land Law (1982); and the
New Urban Land Law (1987).
E/CN.4/2006/4 1/Add. 2
page 8
19. OEe 1979 law provided for State ownership of all unused urban plots”, which included
all plots larger than 1,000 square metres belonging to a same owner. OEe second law (1982)
provided for purchase by the Government's Urban Land Organization of all urban farmland
and abandoned” urban plots for affixed price set by the Government. OEe 1987 law extended
the Urban Land Organization's responsibilities aifier the Iran-Iraq war, especially in aLected
areas. Together, these three laws put a limitation on the total surface of land which a single
owner is allowed to own, and prohibited land transactions, except those undertaken by the
Government.
20. OEe by-laws to the 1999 Total National Budget Law provide for ffinancial and saving
facilities for both mass and individual constructors in order to enhance the performance of the
national housing market. The by-laws also provide for the setting up of banking facilities for the
purchase of housing units by the general public, with special attention to certain groups, such as
the families of the martyrs of war.
21. A 1997 law (176661/58280) also encourages construction and supply of housing units
destined for rent. Special attention is given to young couples married for no longer than
two years and families under the guardianship of women.
C. Main housing policies
22. OEe Special Rapporteur was impressed by the number of diLerent government entities
involved in planning and implementing housing policies. According to information provided by
the Majlis' Construction Committee, 25 per cent of the national development budget was
devoted to housing programmes.
23. OEe population in need can beneffit from a number of safety-net programmes and
assistance from charity institutions and other non-governmental organizations, including
the Housing Foundation, the Jmam Khomeini Relief Committee and the Welfare
Organization. OEese programmes include direct cash transfers, housing provision and social
security coverage.
24. A number of housing funds were also created to beneffit speciffic groups, such as the
Youth Housing Fund and the Labour's Housing Fund. OEe Housing Bank - Maskan Bank -
provides loans and facilities to the housing sector, aimed at house purchase, construction and
completion, repair and facilitation, and credit to building and construction companies.
25. OEe years after the Revolution have seen a larger number of housing programmes aimed
at the direct supply of housing units, mainly based in provisions set forth by the 1979, 1982 and
1987 urban land laws. According to housing policies planned in conjunction with those laws, the
expropriated land should be distributed to individual households to address housing shortage in
urban areas. Later, however, government policies gradually changed, reducing the government
role in the direct provision of housing and making the banking sector the main channel for
housing subsidies.
E/CN.4/2006/41/Add.2
page 9
26. Current housing policies focus mainly on State participation in the construction
sector, with ffinance directed by the Central Bank through credit allocation and subsidies.
Long-term loans to facilitate access to individual credit for housing purchase and construction
set 15-20-year terms and interest rates from 17 to 19 per cent. Special leasing programmes and
housing savings accounts have also been set up by government order.
27. Despite measures such as subsidies for the lower-income population in lease programmes
and the increase of low-interest credit facilities, policies and programmes do not seem to have
resulted in substantially improved access to adequate housing for the very poor. In addition to
the diversion of funds for non-programme purposes, the Special Rapporteur has identiffied
four main elements that may help to explain such failure: inaccessibility of government credit
facilities, leasing and pro-housing savings programmes to the poorest segments of the
population; distortions in government incentives to large-scale builders for production of
low-price housing units; a considerable urban bias in the planning of housing programmes that
has led to unsuitable or insuffcient rural housing policies; and, the lack of coordination
between different government branches, agencies and organizations responsible for
implementation.
28. Leases, loans and housing saving accounts constitute the cornerstones of aLordable
housing policies. Loans and leasing plans require an initial down payment that normally
corresponds to 70 per cent of the total price of the house. Similarly, access to housing saving
accounts requires initial resource deposits normally out of range for the poorer segments of
society. Due to the fact that large parts of the population cannot aLord down payments, initial
deposits and loan instalments, such programmes end up beneffiting only the middle and
upper-middle sectors of Iranian society. Studies carried out by the Management and Plan
Organization' have conffirmed this flaw.
29. The Special Rapporteur also received information regarding the high costs of housing
units built as part of programmes aimed at providing incentives for construction companies to
build aLordable housing alternatives. According to such information, major companies which
received direct subsidies from the Government for the construction of cheap housing units were
instead building and selling expensive apartment buildings in affuent neighbourhoods, such as
in the northern parts of Tehran, thus distorting the objectives of the housing policy.
30. Aifier meeting with a number of off cials to discuss housing programmes carried out by
diLerent government bodies and organizations and aifier reviewing the main housing policies, the
Special Rapporteur would like to express concern regarding a visible urban bias in the country's
housing initiatives. The Maskan Bank (Housing Bank), for example, does not extend its savings
and leasing facilities for housing purchase in rural areas. Such urban bias has resulted in a
relative neglect in the planning and implementation of policies designed speciffically to secure
housing sustainability in rural areas and ineLiciency in addressing the problem of migration of
rural workers and families to cities. The section on aLordability below, further elaborates this
point.
E/CN.4/2006/4 1/Add. 2
page 10
31. Finally, in spite of the multiplicity of institutions, government branches, agencies and
organizations carrying out housing-related projects in Iran, the Special Rapporteur noted an
absence of coordinated action. While planning their programmes, for example, such
organizations fail to seek a clearer division of responsibilities and tasks; this situation apparently
generates duplicity in some areas and gaps in others. The Housing Foundation, the Welfare
Foundation and the Imam Khomeini Relief Committee, for example, all afffirmed having
programmes destined to provide free housing to the elderly. The Special Rapporteur, however,
interviewed a number of aged individuals living on their own who stated that they received no
such assistance. He observed that many people and families were not beneffiting from the
system, despite the extensive number of direct and indirect subsidies, incentives and
welfare programmes in place. When requesting information on the causes of such failure,
diLerent organizations normally deferred responsibility to other government branches.
Since no clear division of responsibilities exists, monitoring appears to become a diffcult
exercise.
II. ADEQUATE HOUSING IN CONTEXT: LIVING CONDITIONS
IN THE ISLAMIC REPUBLIC OF IRAN
32. OEe Special Rapporteur has emphasized the indivisibility of human rights, including
focusing on the civil and political rights dimensions of the right to adequate housing. OEe degree
of respect for the right to security of the home, security of the person, the right to participation
and privacy, are factors to be taken into consideration to ascertain the factual degree of
realization of the right to adequate housing as a component of the right to an adequate standard
of living. Such an approach should inform the Government's policies and actions at all levels,
including its budgetary allocations. Housing, water, sanitation, electricity and protection from
evictions must be addressed together while ensuring priority for women and vulnerable
communities, guaranteeing equal access to land and property and ensuring rights to public
participation and freedom from violence and discrimination.
33. Adequacy of housing, as underlined by the Committee on Economic, Social and
Cultural Rights (CESCR) in its general comment No. 4, is determined in part by social,
economic, cultural, climatic, ecological and other factors. The Committee identiffied the
following aspects of housing as essential in determining its adequacy”: (a) legal security of
tenure; (b) availability of services, materials, facilities and infrastructure; (c) aLordability;
(d) habitability; (e) accessibility; (f) location; and (g) cultural adequacy. OEe Special Rapporteur
has expanded this list of essential elements to include: privacy and security; participation;
freedom from violence; and access to remedies.
A. Security of tenure
34. According to international standards, irrespective of the kind of residence they
occupy, individuals should be provided legal measures, including the right to security of
the home and person, which guarantee stability in their enjoyment of the right to
adequate housing and protection against forced evictions, displacement, harassment and
other threats.
E/CN.4/2006/41/Add.2
page 11
35. During his mission the Special Rapporteur identiffied security of tenure as another main
obstacle to the realization of the right to adequate housing in Iran. A number of factors have
contributed to this situation, as set out below.
Ownership titles
36. The security of a legally obtained domicile is guaranteed by law. However, according to
testimonies received during the mission, a considerable number of families, especially in rural
areas, do not have formal ownership titles over their houses and land. OEis situation seems to
result from: lack of knowledge of the relevant legal provisions and applicable registry
procedures; ownership titles are perceived as unnecessary, and the population in general seems
to be unaware of the relation between ownership titles and security of tenure; and the tendency
not to formally register properties in order to avoid taxes and burdensome administrative
procedures. According to the Government, a programme of formal registration of properties is
ongoing under the 3rd and 4th National Development Plans.
37. In many villages visited by the Special Rapporteur, residents aLirmed enjoying
ownership of their houses and land, based solely on the fact that such property had been with
their families for generations, without this being supported by written documentation. Many
villagers further affrmed that, in case of disputes, neighbours and village leaders could testify on
their behalf
38. It is important to highlight that the migration of large numbers of individuals and families
to urban centres and the Government's plans for development projects on rural land may result
in fundamental social changes in those regions. Such changes may impact on traditional
approaches to conflict resolution, including forms of acquisition and ownership, which means
that ownership titles appear to be necessary for tenure security in the countryside.
Informal settlements
39. The Special Rapporteur notes that the lack of access to aLordable housing also
contributes to the growth of the informal housing sector and the expansion of so-called illegal
settlements, which lack access to basic services. The number of these settlements has increased
in recent decades, 2 to an estimated 25 to 30 per cent of urban settlements. 3 Due to the lack of
formal ownership titles in such areas, inhabitants live under constant threat of being evicted.
40. According to testimonies, the Government's strategy for dealing with such settlements
has been to forcibly evict their dwellers, who in some cases have been transferred to planned
satellite towns outside metropolitan areas. Such planned satellite towns, however, cannot absorb
the increasing demand for low-cost housing in urban centres. The Special Rapporteur
therefore encourages the upgrading of informal neighbourhoods and their regularization
by urban planning authorities through proper registration.
Forced evictions and displacement
41. The Special Rapporteur has continuously stressed the need for Governments to cease
the practice of forced evictions and where evictions may be necessary, to ensure that they are
carried out in strict compliance with existing human rights standards. Forced evictions and
E/CN.4/2006/4 1/Add. 2
page 12
relocation have a fundamental impact on the lives and livelihoods of the people aLected,
particularly on women and the very poor, who are often the main victims of such practices.
Speciffic measures have been set forth by the Commission on Human Rights in its
resolution 1993/77 and by the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights in its
general comment No. 7 to ensure that forced evictions are only carried out as a last resort and,
when that happens, prior notice, consultation and resettlement, among other steps, are observed
by authorities in charge of the operation.
42. Forced evictions carried out in informal neighbourhoods (especially in Shiraz and in
Tehran) for upgrading projects and OEeautiffication” were brought to the Special Rapporteur's
attention. In many such cases, no alternative housing or compensation were oLered to the
aLected population. In addition, development projects have also allegedly caused involuntary
displacement due to the expropriation of rural land and evacuation of inhabitants in rural
areas, mainly to make space for large-scale agricultural plantations and petrochemical plants.
43. In some regions, these expropriations seem to have targeted disproportionately property
and land of religious and ethnic minorities, such as Baha'i cemeteries, but also houses. No
participatory process or consultation has taken place before the decision by relevant authorities
to evacuate the area. OEe expropriations are considered a form of land conffiscation by the
aLected population, particularly since prices paid in return for land are considerably lower than
market values.
Property conffiscation
44. According to information provided by the World Bank, 4 more than 30 per cent of han's
land is under public ownership. Land expropriation policies implemented aifier the Revolution
were aimed at redistribution and direct provision of housing to the poor (refer to the section
above on main housing policies), resulting in land being transferred to the Government.
According to the World Bank, much more land is acquired by public agencies on a yearly basis
than the amount released to the intended benefficiaries of housing programmes. 5
45. Allegations of procedural irregularities and bias against ethnic and religious minorities
have also been raised against expropriations undertaken in the aifiermath of the Revolution, and
many are still being contested today before the courts.
46. OEe Special Rapporteur also received information on a substantive number of cases of
property confiscated under the provisions of article 49 of the Iranian Constitution, according to
which property illicitly acquired or acquired in a manner that is not in conformity with the sharia
law shall be conffiscated and transferred to public ownership. This article is somewhat vague,
since it does not deffine what could be considered irregular acquisition according to sharia law.
Also, whether acquisition is illegal or not is a question open to interpretation by relevant courts.
Some organizations and individuals providing legal aid in the country affrmed that the article
has been applied in an ad hoc and abusive manner, with regular acquisitions taken to courts and
the relevant land confiscated by means of dubious interpretations of article 49. OEis abusive use
of article 49 is seen as an instrument for conffiscating property of individuals as a form of
retribution for their political and/or religious beliefs.
E/CN.4/2006/41/Add.2
page 13
47. The Special Rapporteur would like urge the Government of the Islamic Republic
of Iran to disclose information as to the legal basis of any and aft conffiscation carried out,
as well as about the size, location, previous ownership and destination of conffiscated
property. In addition, appropriate measures should be taken to investigate and reprimand
abuses.
B. Provision of basic services
48. In general, the provision of basic services seems to be reasonable when compared to
other countries with equivalent resources. OEe presence of large numbers of highly deprived
slum areas around main urban centres - a reality observed during many other country missions -
was not noted during his visit to han.
49. The Special Rapporteur recognizes that rural exodus constitutes a challenge for the
Government. However, it should be commended for the fact that overall data indicate that basic
services, such as water, electricity and sanitation have been extended even to distant villages.
Poor neighbourhoods, both in rural and urban areas, still suLer from limitations in their access to
such services. In some areas, services are available only a few hours a day or constantly subject
to cuts, while in others, the quality of the services provided is very poor, especially with respect
to drinking water.
50. Informal” neighbourhoods in urban areas have faced problems in accessing basic
amenities and other government-provided services owing to the settlements not being in
conformity with urban planning regulations and the widespread lack of formal ownership titles.
Because of the high population density in those areas, lack of water and sanitation can be
especially hazardous, creating poor living conditions that may also endanger the residents'
health.
51. The Special Rapporteur is disturbed by the fact that, although the general provision of
services seemed to be reasonable, exceptions seemed to disproportionately aLect predominantly
minority neighbourhoods and provinces, clearly constituting discrimination.
C. ALordability
52. Iran has a relatively high rate of home ownership - 69 per cent in urban areas. 6
This percentage is considerably lower for low-income groups (55-58 per cent among the
bottom 40 per cent, in comparison with 64-79 per cent for the rest of the population). According
to the Istanbul+5 national report prepared by the Government of the Islamic Republic of Iran,
this high rate of home ownership has been recently dropping and a decrease in private ownership
and increase in private tenancy has been observed.
53. Comparing the data concerning housing demand, the purchasing power of low-income
groups and the annual supply of small and cheap housing units in Iran, the housing sector seems
to have fallen short by approximately 55 per cent in supplying affordable accommodation for
low-income families in the last ffive years.
E/CN.4/2006/4 1/Add. 2
page 14
54. According to statistical information collected by the World Bank, a baby-boom
generation will mature between the years 2005 and 2035, representing a new demand
for 500,000 housing units per year. OEe lack of accessible loans and facilities, in combination
with a limited supply of aLordable housing and the expected population growth for the next
decades, call for an urgent long-term policy speciffically aimed at addressing the housing needs
of the very poor.
55. For lower-income groups, aLordability is reportedly the main obstacle to access to
adequate housing in Iran and governmental plans in the area do not seem to suffciently address
the problem. Testimonies received by the Special Rapporteur during his mission indicated that
rents and loan instalments may represent up to 50 per cent of a family's income. The remaining
resources do not cover costs for education, food and health care, particularly in view of a high
inflation in mainly urban areas. OEe situation is especially disturbing in provinces such as
11am, where the majority of the population lives in poverty. Data for the years 2000-200 1
show that low-income households' relative expenditure for housing is much higher than that of
high-income households. 7 OEe Special Rapporteur welcomes information from the Government
indicating that housing for the elderly, socially disadvantaged persons and female-headed
households was set as a short and mid-term target in 2004.
56. According to the World Bank, the triple combination of high price-to-income ratios and
a small housing ffinance system with housing loans capped at 50 million rials is cutting oLaccess
to home-ownership for a majority share of the population in large cities, in particular young
households”. 8 OEe same report affrms that housing rents in han seem to be rising even more
rapidly than housing prices.
57. Housing plans designed to provide incentives to the private sector for the construction of
aLordable housing units in many cases appear to ignore the threats of land speculation and the
commodiffication” of housing that also impact on the ownership and rent prices, especially in
urban areas.
58. Testimonies collected by the Special Rapporteur, both in urban and rural areas, stressed
the inadequacy of the current welfare programmes. OEe level of ffinancial assistance provided by
some organizations to groups in vulnerable situations, such as orphans, the elderly, the disabled,
women heads of household and families of prisoners, is allegedly insuffcient to address their
speciffic needs and diLiculties in accessing adequate housing. One example given was pensions,
considered to be too low and not paid in a regular fashion, thus creating additional obstacles for
access to adequate housing. OEese groups are normally unable to access housing loans and
saving facilities for purchase of housing, and are at the same time over-represented among those
households where rents constitute a particularly high percentage of the monthly expenditure,
impacting negatively on their living conditions.
59. Although studies in Middle East and Northern Africa countries suggest a strong positive
correlation between a reduction in house prices and a reduction in poverty, 9 a solution to the
problem of affordability obviously involves more than the simple supply of low-cost housing
units, including macroeconomic measures and policies aiming at facilitating access to
employment and ensuring the right to education, among others.
E/CN.4/2006/41/Add.2
page 15
60. The Special Rapporteur would like to draw the attention to general comment No. 4
of the CESCR, according to which steps should be taken by States ... to ensure that the
percentage of housing-related costs is, in general, commensurate with income levels”.' 0
Economic policies should therefore take into consideration aLordabifty as an element of
adequate housing and a component of the right to an adequate standard of living and
ensure that household financial costs associated with housing should be at such a level
that the attainment and satisfaction of other basic needs are not threatened or
compromised”.”
D. Accessibifty - disaster prevention and reconstruction
61. The accessibility element of the right to adequate housing means that full and sustainable
access to adequate housing resources by vulnerable groups needs to be given special attention.
62. In this context, the Special Rapporteur would like to recognize the challenges imposed
on the Islamic Republic of han by the fact that most of the country's territory is located in an
earthquake-prone area. OEe Government is to be commended and encouraged in its eLorts to
establish appropriate disaster prevention and relief measures. These measures include plans
aiming at the fortiffication of houses and constructions throughout the country, ensuring that at
least 40 per cent of all buildings are earthquake-resistant. Another interesting policy adopted
was the setting up of a speciffic line of credit that provides low-interest loans for housing
renovation with extra subsidies applied to down payments (11 per cent to be paid with public
funds) if the new structures are designed in accordance with the national construction code
provisions on earthquake prevention. An Unexpected Incident Headquarters was created
in 2004, formed by the Iranian Red Crescent, the Ministry of the Interior, the Ministry of Health
and the Ministry of Welfare and Security.
63. In order to collect ffirst-hand information on earthquake relief and reconstruction eLorts,
the Special Rapporteur decided to visit Bam, where an earthquake on 16 December 2003 killed
more than 20,000 people and completely destroyed the city.
64. According to reports and testimonies received by the Special Rapporteur, relief aid
arrived in Bam shortly aifier the earthquake. Tents were provided to the survivors as emergency
shelter. Authorities calculate that 17,000 houses were destroyed, as well as 3,000 off cc and
public buildings. Added to the number of damaged buildings, the overall number of structures to
be repaired amounted to approximately 41,000.
65. Although an impressive number of international organizations, local NGOs and many
government-related institutions established presences in the city in the immediate aifiermath of
the earthquake, the Special Rapporteur received reports that the majority leifi a few months later
when the relief work was completed. Only a few such organizations engaged in the long-term
reconstruction eLorts. Allegedly, one of the main obstacles to relief eLorts was an ineffficient
national bureaucracy and existing corruption, which sometimes prevented aid from reaching its
intended recipients. In addition, one should remember that the aLected region is one of the
poorest parts of the country and that the population of Bam increased signifficantly in the
immediate follow-up to the earthquake, owing to an influx of people living in poverty
seeking relief.
E/CN.4/2006/4 1/Add. 2
page 16
66. Reconstruction work is centralized under the supervision of a Reconstruction Taskforce,
headed and formed mainly by offcials and local representatives of United Nations agencies, but
open to representatives of non-governmental organizations. The priority in the work carried out
by national organizations, including the Housing Foundation, seems to be reconstruction of basic
infrastructure and public buildings, including administrative facilities, health centres and schools.
OEe reconstruction of houses is carried out mostly in partnership with United Nations agencies or
international organizations. Basic infrastructure and public buildings are expected to be ffinished
in 2007. Overall reconstruction, however, especially the reconstruction of housing units, seems
to be far from completion. OEe estimated completion of these reconstruction eLorts vary greatly,
even among off cials. In view of this situation, the Special Rapporteur would like to express
deep concern in relation to the current housing conditions of the survivors.
67. Aifier the emergency relief was provided, survivors were transferred to camps where
container units where transformed and adapted for housing purposes. More than 18 months
aifier the earthquake, the survivors are still living in such containers. Whereas government
information indicates that 85 per cent of the population has leifi the camps, non-governmental
sources estimate that only about 15 per cent of the population has had the possibility to leave.
In recent months, however, local authorities have encouraged people to move their containers to
their own land plots.
68. Overall living conditions in the camps are disturbing. Health standards are particularly
distressing, especially due to the low quality of water. During the camp visits, many women
reported that their children suLer from regular stomach aches and skin diseases. Testimonies
from some camps' settlers indicated that the provision of water was interrupted several times a
day. High population density is also a concern with up to eight people living in one-room
containers. OEe containers were reportedly not suitable, given the very high temperatures
observed in Bam during the summer, despite the provision of air conditioning to all housing
units, and during the winter, given the water leaks into the containers.
69. A number of measures have reportedly been put in place to ensure access to housing by
vulnerable groups such as widows, female heads of household and people with a disability,
including the provision of a number of housing units at no cost. However, many testimonies of
favouritism and corruption were received. The Special Rapporteur would like to caft on the
appropriate authorities to undertake prompt investigations in this regard.
70. With respect to the overall population, the main policy set forth by the Government to
assist in reconstruction is to provide long-term loans to those who can present ownership titles
and assume down payments. The architectural design also has to be approved by the authorities,
in order to guarantee the construction of earthquake-proof houses. Some families testiffied,
however, that despite having registered months ago to be included in such leasing programmes,
they are still waiting for a response. In addition, many aLected families affrmed that they are
unable to access such programmes due to income constraints.
71. Families who used to live in rented accommodation have expressed deep concern in
relation to their housing situation. With the new government efforts to transfer the containers
occupied by landowners to their own plots, camps have started to be emptied and rumours have
E/CN.4/2006/41/Add.2
page 17
spread that camps will soon be closed down, creating fear among those depending on rental
housing. Camp dwellers complained about the lack of information and of a formal channel for
dialogue with authorities in this regard.
72. Special policies should be developed to ensure that viable alternatives are put into
place for the families stif settled in camps and who have no other place to go owing to the
shortage of rental housing units. The decentralization of the reconstruction eLorts, the
removal of bureaucratic obstacles to the work of international organizations, the disclosure
of information on timetables and on living standards, increasing public participation, a
stronger role to be played by the Ministry of Housing and an independent evaluation of the
reconstruction developments undertaken, are aft measures that the Government may wish
to consider to guarantee that access to adequate housing wif soon be a reality to the
survivors of the Bam earthquake.
73. The Special Rapporteur welcomes the fact that the Bam disaster led to the revival
of disaster-prevention plans and that considerable funds have been allocated for their
implementation. According to information from the Government, these new plans will lead
to the reinforcement of 200,000 houses annually. Considering, however, the risk of similar
tragedies taking place in the future, the Special Rapporteur would also urge the Government
to include the above concerns raised in its disaster-prevention plans.
III. THE RIGHT TO ADEQUATE HOUSING OF SPECIFIC GROUPS
74. Placing housing and discrimination within the context of the indivisibility and
universality of human rights is critical. As stated by the CESCR, (s)ometimes poverty arises
when people have no access to existing resources because of who they are, what they believe or
where they live. Discrimination may cause poverty, just as poverty may cause discrimination.
Inequality may be entrenched in institutions and deeply rooted in social values that shape
relationships within households and communities. Accordingly, the international norms of
non-discrimination and equality, which demand that particular attention be given to vulnerable
groups and individuals from such groups, have profound implications for anti-poverty
strategies”.' 2
75. In this chapter the Special Rapporteur would like to present his observations on obstacles
to the right to adequate housing resulting from apparent discriminatory laws and practices and
from the failure of the State to respect the right to security of the home and person in the context
of the housing conditions of some specific groups.
A. Ethnic and religious minorities and nomads
Ethnic and linguistic minorities
76. The Islamic Republic of Iran's population is multi-ethnic and multi-religious. Persians
represent a little more than 50 per cent of the country's population. Other major
ethno-linguistic groups include Shia Azeris, Sunni and Shia Kurds, Turkmen, Armenians,
Assyrians, Arabs, Baluchis, Bakhtiaris, Lurs and Qashqai. In order to verify the extension of
alleged discrimination with respect to access to housing, the Special Rapporteur visited regions
traditionally inhabited mainly by ethnic minorities and nomadic groups, such as Kermanshah,
E/CN.4/2006/4 1/Add. 2
page 18
Khuzestan and Yassoj. The Special Rapporteur observed disproportionately poor living
conditions that may point to a signifficant degree of neglect in relation to the housing necessities
of ethnic minorities. Such groups seem to have been suLering from uneven distribution of
development resources from the national authorities in Tehran.
77. In Kermanshah and Khuzestan, the overall living conditions in poor neighbourhoods
mainly inhabited by Kurds, Arabs and Muslim Sufis were extremely unsatisfactory. Particularly
serious conditions were observed in places like Ghal'e Channan and Akhar Asfalt in Ahvaz with,
in some cases, a complete lack of basic services impacting negatively on the populations' health
status, in addition to contributing to severe security problems. Most poor neighbourhoods were
unpaved, open-air sewage was sometimes observed and uncollected garbage blocked streets,
obstructing traffc and access from the outside in case of emergencies. Testimonies received
about the housing situation in the 11am province, with a large Kurdish population, were equally
disturbing and indicated that post-war reconstruction eLorts had been disproportionably slow
and insuffcient in this area.
78. Information was also received suggesting that displacement caused by development
projects and land confiscation disproportionately aLected minority groups.
79. In Khuzestan, the Special Rapporteur visited lands traditionally cultivated by Iranian
Arabs, which were expropriated by the Government for remarkably low prices in order to
provide space for development projects and plantations, such as the Dekhoda sugar-cane project.
OEe aLected population had no access to legal remedies to challenge the legitimacy and legality
of the expropriation orders and existing legal remedies only enabled the inhabitants to initiate
discussions related to the price oLered for their lands. Allegedly, even in the very few cases in
which the prices were slightly raised by courts, they were still ffixed much lower than market
values. OEe aLected population was not consulted before or during the expropriation procedure.
80. Expropriations for the implementation of development projects have been especially
criticized in view of the considerable amount of unutilized rural land, where displacement
would be minimal, and which was already owned by the Government, where such projects
could be located.
Religious minorities
81. According to article 13 of the Constitution, the Zoroastrian, Jewish and Christian
minorities are the only recognized religious minorities in the Islamic Republic of Iran. These
groups are allowed, within the limits of the law, to perform their religious practices and to act
according to their own canon in personal matters and religious education. By implication,
therefore, OEther religious minorities are generally denied these rights and oifien persecuted for
. .,, 13
their beliefs .
82. OEe impact of discriminatory laws and practices on the housing situation of religious
minorities in Iran is especially evident in the legal provisions concerning inheritance rights and
in the abusive use of property conffiscation. Article 881 of the Civil Code, for example, states
that if one of the heirs declares that he converted to Islam he is entitled to the entire inheritance
in detriment of the remaining heirs who belong to another faith. These provisions apply even to
housing units inhabited by any other heirs, and may lead to homelessness.
E/CN.4/2006/41/Add.2
page 19
83. Property conffiscation, as mentioned in the section on security of tenure above, is a
serious concern and impacts diLerent groups within society. However, testimonies and reports
indicate that religious minorities may be particularly aLected in this regard, including members
of the Baha'i faith, which, although not constitutionally recognized, is the largest religious
minority in the Islamic Republic of Iran. The Baha'i community reported several cases of land
confiscation against its members, especially in Tehran and in the province of Azerbaijan.
According to information received by the Special Rapporteur, property conffiscation in rural
areas was oifien accompanied by threats and physical violence before and during related forced
evictions.
84. The Special Rapporteur received detailed documentation relating to the location,
size, previous ownership, date of conffiscation, and current State property management, of
approximately 640 Baha'i properties confiscated since 1980. Reports affirm that there were
numerous additional undocumented cases, especially in distant provinces where information
cannot be easily collected. OEe properties listed included houses and agricultural land, but also
Baha'i sacred places such as cemeteries and shrines.
85. The aLected owners have allegedly not been given an opportunity to participate or
receive prior information related to ongoing conffiscation procedures. Normally, they receive a
written convocation asking for their presence before the relevant authority, who will serve them
with a ffinal confiscation order. Many confiscation decisions with regard to Baha'i property are
taken to the Revolutionary Courts. Some verdicts which the Special Rapporteur has been able to
examine declare that the confiscation of the property of the evil sect of the Baha'i” is legally
and religiously justiffiable.' 4 OEe Special Rapporteur is concerned at the clear evidence of
discriminatory conduct with respect to Baha'i property, including housing.
Nomads
86. The Special Rapporteur also focused on the living conditions of nomadic groups,
including the Ouri tribe and other groups settled alongside the road from Shiraz to Yassoj, and
north of Yassoj in the provinces of Fars and Boyerahmad va Kohgiluye.
87. Nomadic groups, amounting to 200,000 families, are spread throughout Iranian territory,
but mainly in the highlands and border areas. Most groups have two main dwelling sites, one for
the long summer and one for the long winter. The distance between these two sites varies
greatly and some groups travel hundreds of kilometres on foot, taking their livestock, tents and
utensils with them.
88. The Special Rapporteur, in his observations on-site and through testimonies, received
information on two types of diffculties faced by those groups: diffculties that derive, to a
certain extent, from the nature of their pastoralist life, such as limited access to water, electricity
and health and educational services; and new limitations imposed on their traditional practices
that have aLected their living conditions.
89. In relation to the ffirst type of diffculties, projects designed to create collective facilities
in the sites traditionally occupied by nomad groups and the construction of access routes to these
sites could be a solution which would both respect their cultural identity and provide necessary
E/CN.4/2006/4 1/Add. 2
page 20
basic services. According to information received by the Special Rapporteur some governmental
projects that had been initiated in this direction had to be halted due to lack of suLicient
resources.
90. Despite the eLorts of the Iranian Nomadic Organization - which carries out important
work supporting the improvement of the living conditions of nomad groups in accordance with
their own lifestyle - other governmental branches, such as the Ministry of Agriculture,
environmental protection agents and local authorities, have established policies aiming at settling
such groups in permanent dwellings. As stated by the CESCR, [ aIctivities geared towards
development or modernization in the housing sphere should ensure that the cultural dimensions
of housing are not sacrifficed, and that, inter alia, modern technological facilities, as appropriate,
,, 15
are also ensured .
91. OEe Special Rapporteur would also like to express concern in relation to some restrictions
imposed on nomadic groups in the last years that have a direct impact on their right to adequate
housing. One preoccupation stemming from testimonies received was the fact that the
Government has reduced the number of routes which nomads are allowed to use for the purpose
of moving from one site to another. Routes designated by the Government are reportedly both
limited in numbers and dangerous. hi addition, many groups have reported that routes and sites
traditionally used by the nomads have been increasingly subject to private appropriation;
testimonies mentioned examples around the city of Shiraz and in Sepidan.
92. OEe main source of food and income for nomadic groups is their livestock. However,
governmental regulations have recently imposed a maximum limit of 100 animals to be owned
by each family of 15. OEere is strict monitoring of this number and high ffines are applied in case
of non-compliance. According to information provided to the Special Rapporteur, such
limitations have been imposed based on the argument that nomadic agricultural activities were
damaging the environment.
93. OEe Special Rapporteur would like to recall Human Rights Committee general
comment No. 23, which clariffies that with regard to the exercise of the cultural rights protected
under article 27, the Committee observes that culture manifests itself in many forms, including a
particular way of life associated with the use of land resources ... OEe enjoyment of those rights
may require positive legal measures of protection and measures to ensure the eLective
participation of members of minority communities in decisions which aLect them”. 16
B. Women's rights to housing, land and property
94. Reference has been made throughout the report to obstacles faced by women with respect
to their right to adequate housing, in particular regarding access to equal rights to housing, land,
property and inheritance.
95. OEe Special Rapporteur received a number of testimonies concerning the obstacles faced
by single and divorced women wishing to buy and rent houses. Although their access to a house
of their own is not forbidden by law, in practice the authorization of a male relative is normally
requested to access banking schemes for any housing purchase. Sellers are reluctant to transfer
ownership of their property into the name of a woman and single women seeking rental are
allegedly rejected systematically by owners, if declaring that they plan to live on their own.
E/CN.4/2006/41/Add.2
page 21
According to some views on the traditional role of women in society, sometimes supported by
legislation and policies, women should only leave their parents' home for the purpose of moving
to their husband's house. Finding adequate housing seems to be even more diffcult for divorced
women.
96. Women's access to the labour market is still limited. Offficial data demonstrates that
women represent only less than 15 per cent of the economically active population in the
country.' 7 If employed, it is a widespread practice that women should present their earnings to
their husbands' discretionary use in the beneffit of the family.
97. This situation restricts women's possibility to acquire adequate housing through means of
purchase and rental and is especially problematic in the event of the husband's death. Although
some welfare programmes have been created targeting widow heads of household, the pensions
provided are normally insuffcient to allow for the maintenance of a home, especially if they
have to assume the high costs of rent. In this context the legal provision that restricts a woman's
inheritance rights with respect to land is of concern as it may lead, in extreme cases, to
homelessness. According to national law, women are in general entitled to half of the
inheritance of men and, when inheriting from her husband, a woman does not have the right to
inherit land, having only rights over liquid assets. OEis also applies to land which she is
occupying. In addition, a woman's share of her husband's inheritance is only one eighth if she
has children or one quarter if she does not; in this last case, the remaining three fourths are
transferred to the Government.
98. Women's non-autonomous management of their own or their family's income may also
have a negative impact in cases of domestic violence. Women who experience abuse have very
limited possibilities to leave their homes and gain access to adequate housing elsewhere. There
are insuffcient shelters available for victims of violence and there is no legal provision
guaranteeing the immediate removal of a husband from the family house in case he constitutes a
danger to the woman's physical and/or mental security. In this respect, the Special Rapporteur
wishes to draw the attention to the ffindings of the Special Rapporteur on violence against
women, its causes and consequences, from her mission to the Islamic Republic of han
undertaken 29 January-6 February 2005.18
99. In case of divorce, the couple's property is divided equally between the partners
only if the man ffiles for divorce under no speciffic justiffication apart from his own will. L
he presents any legal justiffication for divorce, the wife loses her right to her share of the
assets. If a woman leaves the family house, even in case of domestic violence, this may be
considered abandonment of the home and can be used against her if the husband decides to ffile
for divorce.
100. In the light of the above, the diLiculties faced by a woman attempting to rent or
purchase a house and the absence of alternative accommodation, as well as discriminatory
custody practices applying to children, may compel her to stay and put herself in severe
danger. OEe links between violence against women and the right to adequate housing are
unambiguous, given that the right to adequate housing also implies having access to a safe and
secure house.' 9
E/CN.4/2006/4 1/Add. 2
page 22
101. Although noting the information received from the Government regarding the
establishment of so called social crisis management centres”, the Special Rapporteur would also
like to express particular concern in relation to the insuffciency of safe houses for runaway girls
and street women, which may also lead to homelessness. Lack of essential off cial statistics
concerning housing-related issues, including on the number of homeless people in the country
and data on violence against women, constitutes an obstacle to a more complete assessment of
the overall housing situation in the country.
102. OEe Special Rapporteur agrees with the views of Islamic scholars and human rights
activists, 20 who claim that there is no conflict between the recognition of women's equal human
rights in Islam and the provision of these rights in international human rights instruments. In
this context, he urges the authorities in Iran to ensure that, in practice, women in Iran can
enjoy equal rights to housing, land, property and inheritance.
IV. CONCLUDING REMARKS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
103. Adequate housing as a component of the right to an adequate standard of living
should be addressed from a human rights perspective, based on the principles of the
indivisibifty and interrelatedness of human rights. This wif assist the Government in
ensuring that emphasis is given to the poorest segments of society and that policies and
actions at aft levels, including budgetary aftocations, are based on this holistic approach.
104. While the Special Rapporteur has attempted to incorporate some reconunendations
throughout his report, he would like to conclude by submitting the foftowing additional
recommendations that have general policy and legal implications and are related to speciffic
sections of the mission report.
105. The Government should:
(a) Fufty implement the Constitutional provision which establishes the right to
adequate housing for aft Iranians, despite their etimic or religious origins, resulting in
equal distribution of development resources, respect for human rights over traditional
lands, and elaboration of culturally sensitive housing policies;
(b) Re-examine the functioning of the enfinent domain” doctrine that governs
State acquisition of land, without giving recourse to affected communities to ife an appeal
to chaftenge the State authority, and to consider amendments to article 49 of the
Constitution to ensure that abuse of this article does not continue in the judiciary;
(c) Harmonize the work of the diLerent governmental and govermnent-related
organizations carrying out housing progranunes, with clearer identiffication of
responsibilities, overall observation of human rights standards, targeting speciafty
disadvantaged groups, and setting up of monitoring and accountability mechanisms;
(d) Strengthen public participation in the elaboration of development plans and
in the preparation and assessment of housing projects, taking into account the important
role played in democratic societies by NGOs, whose independent work should be supported
and faciftated by the Government;
E/CN.4/2006/41/Add.2
page 23
(e) Be increasingly transparent in the development of policies, including by
the publication of data concerning not only benefficiaries, but also the population not
yet covered by the programmes, and open in the assessment of priorities and results,
with space for public monitoring, including fuft participation of the intended population;
(!‘) Take steps to ensure that, both at the policy and legislative levels, there is
harmonization between provisions in international human rights instruments and Islamic
law and practice in relation to women's equal rights to housing, land, property and
inheritance;
(g) Monitor, evaluate and adapt current housing policies to guarantee they wift
eLectively reach the targeted benefficiaries, improving impact of programmes designed to
facilitate access to adequate housing by low-income individuals;
(Ii) Consider intervening in the housing and land market to address the
inordinate increase in rental and ownership costs that are preventing access to adequate
housing, particularly for the lower-income groups;
(i) Accelerate the titling of housing and land acquired according to traditional
practices in rural areas and the regularization and upgrading of informal settlements in
urban areas;
(I) Halt immediately all forced evictions carried out in disregard of
international human rights law and plan resettlement programmes aiming at avoiding
displacement caused by development projects;
(ii) Conduct in-depth investigation of property conffiscation cases, especially
when involving ethnic and religious minorities and ensure that no abuses were or wift be
committed against those groups;
(1) Improve the quality of basic services provided to poor neighbourhoods,
including access to drinking water, taking note of the CESCR general comment No. 15,
which lists the elements to the right to water as including availability and quality;
(m) Develop specific policies to expand access to basic amenities to distant and
minority predominant regions;
(n) Increase attention to the situation of the people aLected by the earthquake
in Bam who are stif living in camps where sanitation and water conditions continue to be
grave and their inclusion in the reconstruction planning and development;
(o) Decentralize reconstruction eLorts and remove bureaucratic obstacles to the
work of international organizations, as weft as disclose information on timetables and on
existing housing and living conditions;
E/CN.4/2006/4 1/Add. 2
page 24
(p) Focus on historicafty marginalized provinces, such as 11am, Khuzestan and
Sistan-Baluchestan, with budget allocation aiming at ensuring the realization of human
rights, including provision of civic services to people and communities in the region;
(q) Reinforce, expand and duly implement housing policies aimed at groups in
vulnerable situations and ethnic and religious minorities (such as Kurds, the Baha'i, Laks,
Arabs);
(r) Investigate forced eviction cases and development-induced displacement,
to ensure that evictions are only carried out as a last resort and in accordance with
international standards, making certain that religious and ethnic minorities are not
disproportionately aLected by development projects, and that they have recourse to legal
remedies to chaftenge State acquisition of homes and lands;
(s) Develop further policies to address discrimination against women in
relation to equal access to housing, land, property and inheritance, including the
urgent creation of safe houses for women subject to violence, runaway girls and street
women;
(t) Introduce human rights education across the country to ensure that
traditional practices do not lead to the violation of women's equal rights to housing, land,
property and inheritance;
(u) Consider ratifying the Convention on the Elimination of Aft Forms of
Discrimination against Women (CEDAW) and its Optional Protocol.
106. The existing obstacles against the implementation of the right to adequate housing
are enormous and facing these chaftenges will require joint efforts by not only the
Government but also by national non-govermnental actors and the international
community alike. In this sense, the Special Rapporteur would also like to caft on the
international community to:
(a) Provide technical cooperation to facilitate an increase in the construction of
earthquake-proof houses and cooperation in the area of disaster prevention across the
country; coftaborate in the immediate improvement of the living conditions in the survivor
camps in Bam and accelerate the reconstruction eLorts in the city;
(b) Increase funding to housing projects, especiafty those aimed at groups in
vulnerable situations, such as women heads of households and people with disabifties;
(c) Ensure monitoring and reporting of all funding provided;
(d) Increase support, including training and capacity-building programmes,
to civil society carrying out human rights and community development projects in the
Islamic Republic of Iran.
E/CN.4/2006/41/Add.2
page 25
Notes
1 Plan to ffight poverty and raise the income of poor households”, Management and Plan
Organization, Social ALairs Bureau, September 2000.
2 Strategies for enabling and regularizing informal settlements, Ministry of Housing and Urban
Development, 2004, p. 2.
Zebardst, Esfandir, 2002, Spontaneous Settlements: Perceptions and Realities, unpublished
mimeo, in World Bank, Iran Housing Sector Strategy, June 2002, Urban Lands and Market in
Iran, p. 5.
MENA countries, p. 12.
Iran Housing Sector Strategy, World Bank, June 2002, executive Summary, reform
recommendation 2.
6 han Housing Sector Strategy, World Bank, 2002 (material provided by the Ministry for
Housing and Urban Development).
Ibid., table 12.
8 Ibid., p. 6.
OEe macroeconomic and sectoral performance of housing supply policies in selected MENA
countries: a comparative analysis”, World Bank, April 2005.
10 CESCR general comment No. 4, para. 8 (c).
Idem.
12 CESCR, Poverty and the hiternational Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights”
(E/C.12/2001/10), para. 11.
13 Meharan Tamadonfar, Islam, law and political control in contemporary Iran”, Journal for
the Scientific Study ofReligion, vol. 40, No. 2, June 2001, p. 207, in Ethnic and religious
minorities in the Islamic Republic of Iran”, Sub-Commission on Promotion and Protection of
Human Rights, Working Group on Minorities (E/CN.4/Sub.2/AC.5/2003/WP.8), S May 2003.
14 Report on the situation of human rights in the Islamic Republic of Iran, submitted
on 16 January 2002, by the Special Representative of the Commission on Human Rights,
Maurice Danby Copithorne, pursuant to Commission resolution 2001/17 (E/CN.4/2002/42),
para. 77.
CESCR, general comment No. 4, para. 8 (g).
16 General comment No. 23, para. 7, CCPRIC/2 1/Rev. 1/Add s.
E/CN.4/2006/4 1/Add. 2
page 26
17 National Report on Women's Status in the Islamic Republic of Iran, Center for Women's
Participation, 2005, p. 71.
18 See E/CN.4/2006/61/Add.3, in particular paras. 34, 36 and 49.
19 See the previous report of the Special Rapporteur on women and adequate housing
(E/CN.4/2005/55).
20 See, for example Shirin Ebadi, The Rights of the Child. A Study ofLegalAspects of
Children's Rights in Iran (Tehran, 1994) and Nobel Peace Prize acceptance speech, Jii the name
of the God of Creation and Wisdom”, Oslo, 10 December, 1993.
